Ch 4 - Tissue Level of Organization

Terms	Definitions
tissue	a group of cells that usually have a common origin and function together to carry out specialized activities
histology	the study of tissues
pathologist	a physician who specializes in laboratory studies of cells and tissues to help other physicians make accurate diagnoses
epithelial tissue	covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts; they also form glands, allows the body to interact with both its internal and external environments
connective tissue	protect and support the body and its organs, bind organs together, stores energy reserves as fat, help provide the body with immunity to disease causing organisms
muscular tissue	composed of cells specialized for contraction and generation of force, generates heat that warms the body
nervous tissue	detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body and responds by generating electrical signals called nerve action potentials that activate muscular contractions and glandular secretions
biopsy	to remove a sample of living tissue for microscopic examination
cell junctions	contact points between the plasma membranes of tissue cells
tight junctions	consists of weblike strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off passageways between adjacent cells
adherens junctions	contain plaque, a dense layer of proteins on the inside of the plasma membrane that attaches both to membrane proteins and to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton
cadherins	transmembrane glycoproteins that join the cells
adhesion belts	extensive zones of adherens junctions that encircle a cell the way a belt encircles your waist
desmososmes	contail plaque and have transmembrane glycoproteins (cadherins) that extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one another
hemidesmosomes	resemble desmosomes but they anchor cells to the basement membrane, not each other
integrins	transmembrane gylcoproteins in hemidesmosomes
laminin	a protein present in the basement membrane, where integrins attach
connexins	membrane protein of connexons
connexons	fluid filled tunnels that connect neighboring cells
gap junctions	cell junctions with a narrow intercellular gap
epithelium	epithelial tissue, cells arranged in continuous sheets, single or multiple layers, little intercellular space, forms coverings and linings throughout the body
epithelial tissue functions	1) selective barriers that limit or aid the transfer of substances into and out of the body 2) secretory surfaces that release products produced by the cells onto their free surfaces 3) protective surfaces that resist the abrasive influences of the environment
apical (free) surface	faces the body surface, a body cavity, the lumen of an internal organ, or tubular duct that receives cell secretions
lumen	interior space of an internal organ
lateral surfaces	faces adjacent cells
basal surface	opposite of the apical surface
apical layer	most superficial layer of cells
basal layer	deepest layer of cells
basement membrane	a thin extracellular layer that consists of 2 layers, basal lamina & reticular lamina, attach and support the overlying epithelial tissue, form migration surface for tissue growth & healing, restricts passage of larger molecules between epithelium & connective tissues
basal lamina	closer to and secreted by the epithelial cells, part of the basement membrane
reticular lamina	closer to the underlying connective tissue, part of the basement membrane
fibroblasts	proteins such as collagen produced by connective tissue cells
avascular	without blood vessels, relies on the blood vessels of adjacent connective tissue to bring nutrients and remove wastes by diffusion
2 divisions of epithelial tissues	1) covering and lining epithelium 2) glandular epithelium
covering and lining epithelium	forms the outer covering of the skin and some internal organs, also forms the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, body cavities, and interiors of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems
glandular epithelium	makes up the secreting portions of glands such as the thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and sweat glands
epithelial arrangement (types)	1) simple 2) pseudostratified 3) stratified
simple epithelium	a single layer of cells; functions: diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, and absorption
secretion	the production and release of substances such as mucus, sweat, or enzymes
absorption	the intake of fluids or other substances such as digested food from the intestinal tract
pseudostratified epithelium	appears to have multiple layers of cells because the nuclei lie at different levels and not all cells reach the apical surface, may contain cilia or goblet cells
stratified epithelium	two or more layers of cells functions: protect underlying tissues in locations of considerable wear and tear
shapes of epithelial cells	1) squamous 2) cuboidal 3) columnar 4) transitional
squamous cells	thin cells function: allow for rapid passage of substances through them
cuboidal cells	as tall as they are wide, shaped like cubes or hexagons function: may have microvilli & often specialized for secretion and absorption
columnar cells	much taller than they are wide function: may have cilia or microvilli & often specialized for secretion and absorption
transitional cells	change shape from squamous to cuboidal and back function: allows stretching like the bladder
types of simple epithelium	1) simple squamous 2) simple cuboidal 3) simple columnar (ciliated or nonciliated) 4) pseudostratified columnar (ciliated or nonciliated)
types of stratified epithelium	1) stratified squamous (keratinized or nonkeratinized) 2) stratified cuboidal 3) stratified columnar 4) transitional
keratinized	when surface cells are dead and become hardened
nonkeratinized	when surface cells remain alive
papanicolaou test	(pap test, pap smear) collection and microscopic examination of epithelial cells scraped from the apical surface of the cervix and vagina
simple squamous	1) lines cardiovascular & lymphatic system (endothelium) 2) epithelial layer of serous membranes (mesothelium) 3) air sacs of lungs, glomerular capsule of the kidneys, inner surface of eardrum (tympanic membrane) function: filtration, diffusion, secretion in serous membranes
simple cuboidal	location: surface of ovary, lines anterior surface of lens capsule in the eye, lines kidney tubules, ducts of many glands, pancreas function: secretion and absorption
nonciliated simple columnar	location: gastrointestinal tract, ducts of glands, gallbladder function: secretion & absorption, higher level of secretion & absorption than cuboidal cells, mucous lubricates lining of digestive, respiratory, reproductive, urinary tract, prevents destruction of stomach lining by gastric juices
microvilli	fingerlike cytoplasmic projections, increase surface area of plasma membrane
goblet cells	modified columnar cells that secrete mucus
ciliated simple columnar	location: lines bronchioles of respiratory tract, fallopian tubes, uterus, paranasal sinuses, central canal of spinal cord, and ventricles of the brain function: cilia move mucus and foreign particles toward the throat to be coughed up, swallowed, or spit out, move oocytes through fallopian tubes
pseudostratified columnar	location: ciliated- in airways, nonciliated- lines larger ducts and glands, male urethra function: ciliated- secretes mucus that traps foreign particles, nonciliated- absorption and protection
stratified squamous	location: keratinized- forms superficial layer of skin, nonkeratinized- lines wet surfaces, covers tongue function: protection against abrasion, water loss, UV radiation, foreign invasion
keratin	a tough fibrous intracellular protein that helps protect skin and underlying tissues from heat, microbes, and chemicals
stratified cuboidal	location: ducts of adult sweat glands and esophageal glands, part of male urethra function: protection, limited secretion and absorption
stratified columnar	location: lines part of urethra, large excretory ducts of some glands, small areas in anal mucous membrane, part of conjunctiva of the eye function: protection and secretion
transitional	location: lines bladder and portions of ureters and urethra function: allows urinary organs to stretch and maintain protective lining while holding variable amounts of fluid without rupturing
gland	a single cell or group of cells that secrete substances into ducts onto a surface or into the blood
endocrine gland	secretes hormones that enter the interstitial fluid and then diffuse directly into the bloodstream without flowing through the duct
exocrine gland	secretes their products into ducts that empty onto the surface of a covering and lining epithelium like the skin surface or lumen of a hollow organ
unicellular glands	single celled glands (goblet cells)
multicellular glands	composed of many cells that form a distinctive microscopic structure or macroscopic organ (sudoriferous, sweat, or salivary glands)
sudoriferous gland	sweat gland
salivary gland	excrete saliva
sebaceous gland	oil gland
multicellular gland criterion	1) branched or unbranched 2) shape of the secretory portion of the gland
simple gland	gland does not branch
compound gland	gland duct branches
tubular gland	have tubular secretory parts
acinar glands	(aveolar glands) have rounded secretory parts
tubuloacinar glands	have both tubular and rounded secretory parts
types of simple glands	1) simple tubular 2) simple branched tubular 3) simple coiled tubular 4) simple acinar 5) simple branched acinar
simple tubular gland	tubular (straight) secretory part is unbranched, attached to a single unbranched duct location: glands in the large intestine
simple branched tubular gland	tubular (straight) secretory part is branched, attached to a single unbranched duct location: gastric glands
simple coiled tubular gland	tubular secretory part is coiled and attached to a single unbranched duct location: sweat glands
simple acinar gland	rounded secretory portion attached to a single unbranched duct location: glands of the penile urethra
simple branched acinar gland	rounded secretory portion attached to a single unbranched duct location: sebaceous glands
types of compound glands	1) compound tubular 2) compound acinar 3) compound tubuloacinar
compound tubular glands	tubular secretory portion attached to a branched duct location: bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands
compound acinar glands	rounded secretory portion attached to a branched duct location: mammary glands
compound tubuloacinar glands	tubular and rounded secretory portions attached to a branched duct location: acinar glands of the pancreas
merocrine glands	secretions are synthesized in the ribosomes, packaged by the golgi and released via exocytosis location: salivary glands, pancreas
apocrine glands	accumulate their secretory products at the apical surface of the secreting cell then exocytize location: mammary glands
holocrine glands	accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol, as the cell matures it ruptures and becomes the secretory product location: sebaceous gland
connective tissues	bind, support, and strengthen other tissues
extracellular matrix	material located between widely spaced cells, made of protein fibers and ground substance
ground substance	the material between the cells and the protein fibers, may be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified
mensenchymal cells	a type of embryonic cell
fibroblasts	immature cells in loose and dense connective tissue, large flat cells with branching processes, secrete fibers and certain components of the ground substance
chondroblasts	immature cells in cartilage tissue
osteoblasts	immature cells in bone tissue
immature cells	designated by the ending "-blast", retain the capacity for cell division and secrete the extracellular matrix that is characteristic of the tissue
mature cells	designated by the ending "-cyte", have reduced capacity for cell division and extracellular matrix formation, mostly involved in monitoring and maintaining the extracellular matrix
macrophages	develop from monocytes, irregular shape with short branching projections, engulf bacteria and cellular debris by phagocytosis
monocytes	a type of white blood cell
fixed macrophages	reside in a particular tissue
wandering macrophages	have the ability to move throughout the tissue and gather at sites of infection or inflammation to carry on phagocytosis
plasma cells	develop from B lyphocytes, secrete antibodies, an important part of the immune response, most reside in connective tissues of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts
B lymphocytes	a type of white blood cell
antibodies	proteins that attack or neutralize foreign substances in the body
mast cells	abundant along the blood vessels that supply connective tissue, produce histamine, can bind to, ingest, and kill bacteria
histamine	a chemical that dilates small blood vessels as part of the inflammatory process
adipocytes	fat cells (adipose cells), connective tissue cells that store triglycerides (fats), found deep to the skin, and around organs
white blood cells	not found in significant numbers in normal connective tissue, may migrate from the blood under certain conditions
neutrophils	gather at the site of infection
eosinophils	migrate to sites of parasitic invasions and allergic responses
components of extracellular matrix	1) ground substance 2) fibers
glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)	the complex combinations of polysaccharides and proteins found in the ground substance
proteoglycans	proteins that form a core to which GAGs can attach like bristles of a brush
hyaluronic acid	a viscous slippery substance that binds cells together, lubricates joints, and helps maintain the shape of the eyeballs
hyaluronidase	an enzyme that breaks apart hyaluronic acid
chondroitin sulfate	provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage, bone, skin, and blood vessels
dermatan sulfate	found in the ground substance of skin, tendons, blood vessels, and heat valves
keratan sulfate	found in the ground substance of bone, cartilage, and the cornea of the eye
adhesion proteins	responsible for linking components of the ground substance to one another and to the surfaces of cells
fibronectin	the main adhesion protein of connective tissue
types of connective tissue fibers	1) collagen fibers 2) elastic fibers 3) reticular fibers
collagen fibers	strong fibers, resistant to pulling forces (tension), allows tissue flexibility
collagen	the most abundant protein in the body, found in most types of connective tissue
elastic fibers	smaller diameter than collagen fibers, form a fibrous network within a connective tissue
elastin	protein found in elastic fibers
fibrillin	glycoprotein in elastic fibers
elasticity	the ability to return to its original shape after being stretched
reticular fibers	collagen arranged in fine bundles with a coating of glycoprotein, support the walls of blood vessels and form a network around the cells in some tissues such as areolar connnective tisssue
stroma	supporting framework of many soft organs such as the spleen and lymph nodes
Marfan syndrome	inherited disorder caused by a defective fibrillin gene
types of embryonic connective tissue	1) mesenchyme 2) mucous connective tissue
types of loose connective tissue	1) areolar connective tissue 2) adipose tissue 3) reticular connective tissue
types of dense connective tissue	1) dense regular connective tissue 2) dense irregular connective tissue 3) elastic connective tissue
types of cartilage	1) hyaline cartliage 2) firbrocartilage 3) elastic cartilage
other types of mature connective tissue	1) bone 2) blood tissue (liquid connective tissue) 3) lymph (liquid connective tissue)
embryonic connective tissue	present primarily in the embryo (fertilization - 2 mo) & in the fetus (3rd month - birth)
mature connective tissue	1) loose connective tissue 2) dense connective tissue 3) cartilage 4) bone tissue 5) liquid connective tissue
loose connective tissue	fibers are loosely arranged between cells (areolar, adipose, reticular)
dense connective tissues	contains thicker, more densely packed fibers, but have fewer cells than loose connective tissue (dense regular, dense irregular, elastic)
liposuction	(suction lipectomy) suctioning out a small amount of adipose tissue, used as a body contouring procedure
cartilage	consists of a dense network of collagen fibers & elastic fibers firmly embedded in chondroitin sulfate, can endure considerably more stress than loose and dense connective tissue (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage),
resilience	the ability to resume its original shape after deformation
antiangiogenesis factor	a substance that prevents blood vessel growth
areolar connective tissue	strength, elasticity, support location: subcutaneous layer deep to skin, papillary region of the dermis, around blood vessels, nerves, and body organs
adipose tissue	reduces heat loss through the skin, energy reserve, supports and protects organs location: where areolar CT is located, subQ layer deep to skin, around heart & kidneys
reticular connective tissue	forms stroma of organs, binds smooth muscle tissue cells, filters and removes worn-out blood cells in the spleen and microbes in lymph location: stroma of lever, spleen, lymph nodes, red bone marrow, reticular lamina of basement membrane, around blood vessels and muscles
dense regular connective tissue	provides strong attachment between various structures location: forms tendons, ligaments
dense irregular connective tissue	provides tensile strength in many directions location: reticular region of the dermis, joint capsules, membrane that capsules around organs (kidneys, liver, testes, lymph nodes), heart valves
elastic connective tissue	allows for stretching of organs, can recoil after being stretched location: lung tissue, walls of elastic arteries, trachea, ligaments between vertebrae
hyaline cartilage	provides smooth surfaces for movement at joints, flexibility, and support, weakest cartilage location: most abundant cartilage in body, at ends of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, trachea
fibrocartilage	support and joining structures together, strength and rigidity, strongest type of cartilage location: pubic symphysis, intervertebral disc, cartilage pads of knees, tendons that insert into cartilage
elastic cartilage	provides strength and elasticity, maintains shape of certain structures location: lid on top of larynx, part of external year, eustachian tubes
chondrocytes	found inside the laucna (lacunae) of cartilage in the extracellular matrix
perichondrium	a covering of dense irregular CT that surround the face of most cartilage
tension	stretching
compression	squeezing
shear	pushing in opposite directions
interstitial growth	growth from within the tissue
appositional growth	growth on the outer surface of the tissue
bones	organs composed of several different connective tissues including bone or osseous tissue
bone tissue (osseous tissue)	support, protect, storage, serves as levers that act with muscle tissue to enable movement location: compact and spongy bone
osteon	basic unit of compact bone
haversian system	osteon
parts of an osteon	1) lamella 2) lacunae 3) canaliculi 4) central (haversian) canal
lamella	concentric rings of extracellular matrix composed of mineral salts and collagen fibers
lacunae	small spaces between lamella that contain osteocytes
canaliculi	a network of minute canals projecting from the lacunae
central (haversian) canal	contains blood vessels and nerves
spongy bone	lacks osteons, consists of trabeculae
trabeculae	columns of bone
tissue engineering	combining synthetic material with cells to grow new tissue
blood tissue (blood)	connective tissue with a liquid extracellular matrix and formed elements
blood plasma	the extracellular matrix of blood
formed elements	elements suspended in the blood plasma (red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets)
erythrocytes	red blood cells, transports oxygen to body cells and removes some carbon dioxide from them
leukocytes	white blood cells, involved in phagocytosis, immunity, and allergic reactions
thrombocytes	platelets, participate in blood clotting
lymph	extracellular fluid that flows in lymphatic vessels
membranes	flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line part of the body
epithelial membranes	composed of an epithelial layer and an underlying connective tissue layer
mucous membranes	(mucosa) lines a body cavity that opens directly to the exterior
lamina propria	the connective tissue of a mucous membrane made of areolar connective tissue, supports the epithelium, binds it to the underlying structures
serous membranes	(serosa) lines a body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior (thoracic or abdominal cavities)
parietal layer	the layer attached to and lining the cavity wall
visceral layer	the layer that covers and adheres to the organs within the cavity
serous fluid	a watery lubricant that allows organs to glide easily over one another or to slide against the walls of cavities
pleura	the serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and covering the lungs
pericardium	serous membrane lining the heart cavity and covering the heart
peritoneum	serous membran lining the abdominal cavity and covering the abdominal organs
cutaneous membrane	skin
epidermis	the superficial portion of the skin
dermis	the deep portion of the skin
synovial membranes	lines the cavities of freely movable joints (joint cavities)
synoviocytes	a discontinuous layer of cells which are closer to the synovial cavity, secrete some components of synovial fluid
synovial fluid	lubricates and nourishes cartilage covering the bones at moveable joints
types of membranes	1) mucous membranes 2) serous membranes 3) cutaneous membrane 4) synovial membranes
muscular tissues	consist of muscle fibers or myocytes that can use ATP to generate force
muscle fibers	enlongated cells of muscle (myocytes)
types of muscle tissue	1) skeletal muscle 2) cardiac muscle tissue 3) smooth muscle
skeletal muscle	long, cylindrical, striated fibers, nuclei at periphery, voluntary function: motion, posture, heat production, protection
striated	alternating light and dark bands within fibers that are visible under a light microscope
cardiac muscle	branched, striated fibers with a centrally located nucleus, attached end to end with intercalated discs, involuntary function: pumps blood
intercalated discs	transverse thickenings of plasma membrane
smooth muscle tissue	involuntary, nonstriated, small spindle shaped cells with a centrally located nucleus function: motion and airways, propulsion of food through GI tract, gallbladder, urinary bladder
neurons	nerve cells
nerve action potentials	(nerve impulses) stimuli converted into electrical signals
parts of a neuron	cell body, dendrites, axons
cell body	contains the nucleus and other organelles
dentrites	tapering, branched, short cell extensions
axon	a single, thin, cylindrical process that may be very long
neuroglia	supportive cells for neurons
voluntary	conscious control
involuntary	not consciously controlled
excitable cells	neurons and muscle fibers
electrical excitability	the ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals
neurotransmitters	chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with each other
action potentials	electrical signals
stroma	the supporting connective tissue
parenchyma	cells that constitute the functioning part of a tissue or organ
stem cells	undifferentiated cells
satellite cells	skeletal muscle stem cells
tissue regeneration	a near perfect reconstruction of injured tissue
fibrosis	the process of using collagen and extracellular matrix materials to create scar tissue
granulation tissue	actively growing connective tissue
wound dehiscence	the partial or complete separation of the outer layers of a sutured incision
peritonitis	inflammation of the peritoneum
septic shock	shock that results from bacterial toxins due to vasodilation
factors affecting tissue repair	nutrition, blood circulation, age
adhesions	abnormal joining of tissues
adhestiotomy	surgical release of adhesions
autoimmune diseases	diseases in which antibodies produced by the immune system fail to distinguish what is foreign from what is self and attack the body's own tissues
Sjogren's syndrome	a common autoimmune disease in which the immune system attacks the tear glands & salivary glands
systemic lupus erythematosis (lupus)	a chronic inflammatory disease of connective tissue, autoimmune disease
atrophy	a decrease in size of cells with a decrease in the aize of an affected organ or tissue
hypertrophy	increase in the size of tissue because its cells enlarge without undergoing cell division
tissue rejection	an immune response of the body directed at foreign proteins in transplanted tissue or organs
tissue transplantation	replacement of a diseased or injured tissue or organ
xenotransplantation	the replacement of a diseased or injured tissue with cells or tissue from an animal

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Ch 4 - Tissue Level of Organization

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