Psychology
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69 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Sensation | the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies |
| Perception | the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events |
| Psychophysics | the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli , such as their intensity, and our psychological experience with them |
| absolute threshold | the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time |
| top-down processing | information processing guided by higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations |
| bottom-down processing | analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brains integraton of sensory information |
| Pupil | the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters |
| Iris | a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening |
| Lens | the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina |
| Retina | the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information |
| Cornea | the transparent outer covering of the eye |
| Rods | retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necesary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones do not respond |
| Cones | retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. |
| Retinal Disparity | a binocular cue for perceiving depth; by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the close the object |
| Wavelength | the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission |
| Hue | the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth. |
| Intensity | the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the waves amplitude |
| Accomodation | the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina |
| Optic Nerve | the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain |
| Inner Ear | the innermost part of the ear containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs |
| Middle Ear | the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window |
| Cochlea | a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses |
| Outer Ear | channels the sound waves through the auditory canal to the eardrum |
| Frequency | the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time |
| Pitch | a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency |
| Audition | the sense or act of hearing |
| Learning | a relatively permanent change in an organisms behavior due to experience |
| Sensation Interaction | the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences taste |
| Unconditional Response (UR) | in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occuring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salvation when food is in the mouth |
| Unconditioned Stimulus (US) | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers a response |
| Conditioned Response (CR) | in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned response) stimulus |
| Condtioned Stimulus (CS) | in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an uncondtioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response |
| Classical Conditioning | a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events |
| Figure-ground | the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground). |
| Binocular Cues | depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes |
| Depth Perception | the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance |
| Monocular Cues | depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone |
| Grouping | the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups |
| Punishment | an event that decreases the behavior that it follows |
| Positive reinforcement | increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. |
| Negative Reinforcement | increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. |
| Reinforcer | in opereant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior that it follows |
| Validity | the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to |
| Reliability | the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, or retesting |
| Semanitcs | the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning |
| Morpheme | in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) |
| Phoneme | in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit |
| Syntax | the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language |
| Grammar | in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others |
| Functional Fixedness | the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving |
| Algorithm | a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier -- but also more error-prone -- use of heuristics |
| Heuristics | A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgment and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier, but more error-prone than algorithms |
| Latent Learning | learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it |
| Relative Size | smaller image is more distant |
| Nearsightedness | a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina |
| Farsightedness | a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina |
| Interpostion | closer object blocks distant object |
| closure | fills in gaps |
| Convergence | two eyes move inward for near objects |
| Culturally Deaf | Shared beliefs values and behaviors of deaf or hard of hearing people who use sign language as a primary means of communication |
| Skinner | father of operant conditioning;Thought everything could be modeled in a Stimulus-response contingency. |
| Pavlov | discovered classical conditioning by using bells and dogs |
| Bandura | bobo doll experiment |
| Cognitive Psychology | the study oif concept formation, problem solving, decision making, and judgement formation |
| Cognition | mental activity associated with processing, understanding, and communicating information |
| Binet | came up with mental age as a measure of intelligence |
| Achievement Tests | a test designed to assess what a person has learned |
| Aptitude Tests | a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn. |
| Intelligence Test | a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores |
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