AP Euro Ch. 20: "The Revolution in Politics"
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apeurorockstar on March 12, 2012
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192 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Klemmens von Metternich | Austria's chief minister and architect of the post-Napoleonic world (The Age of Metternich) Host of the Congress of Vienna that established the Concert of Europe Committed to Conservatism, Legitimacy, Intervention & a Balance of Power. |
| Edmund Burke (p 612 | Reflections on a Revolution in France Early Critic of the French Revolution (when Englishmen were generally enthusiastic), predicted that it would end in bloodshed. |
| THE Conservative theorist! | Societies evolve over time. Revolutionary changes break the implicit contract with history. Change should be gradual (evolutionary) like England, not sudden (revolutionary) like France. |
| Congress of Vienna | Settlement conference that met after Napoleon's defeat in order to reorganize Europe. Controlled by Metternich's 4 Great Powers. Established a conservative order that would last until 1848 (some say until WWI) |
| Balance of Power | Principle of Metternich and the Congress of Vienna. Balance was sought in order to avoid European dominance by one country (Napoleon's France being fresh on their minds) . In the 1700s the Balance had been obtained by accident, in the 1800s this balance was the result of conscious effort of the Great Powers. |
| Legitimacy | Generally: a government that is considered valid by whomever is speaking. Reality check: Legitimacy is in the eye of the beholder. In this Chapter: Principle embraced by Metternich and the Congress of Vienna. Metternich was determined to re-establish legitimate governments. He (and conservatives in general) defined "legitimate" as pre-1789 governments. Liberals believed legitimacy came from the Locke's "consent of the governed |
| Quadruple Alliance | (Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia) the 4 major enemies of Napoleon who banded together to defeat him and ensure peace after the war at the Congress of Vienna. |
| Conservatism | Political philosophy that evolved during/after the French Revolution. Articulated best by Burke, conservatives favored obedience to political authority, believed that organized religion was crucial to social order, hated revolutionary upheavals, and were unwilling to accept either the liberal demands for civil liberties and representative governments or the nationalistic aspirations generated by the French revolutionary era. The community took precedence over individual rights; society must be organized and ordered, and tradition remained the best guide for order. Conservatism's major pillars were Legitimate monarchies, landed aristocracies, and established churches. |
| Economic Liberalism | - (Classical economic theory) focused around laissez-faire. Governments should not interfere with supply and demand or the economic liberty of the individual. If individuals are allowed economic liberty, ultimately they will bring about the maximum good for the maximum number and benefit the general welfare of society. Liberals wanted to make and sell goods freely. They favored removal of tariffs and barriers to trade. They opposed the regulations on labor and wages by governments or by guilds. Notice the connection with political liberalism: FREEDOM & Liberty. |
| Political Liberalism- | Political idea developed according to Enlightenment principles. stressed that people should be free from restraint. Also the protection of civil liberties or the basic rights of all people, which included equality before the law, freedom of assembly, speech, press, and freedom from arbitrary arrest. Liberals wanted these freedoms guaranteed by a written document. They wanted religious toleration, separation of church and state, and the right to peacefully oppose government. They favored a legislature elected by qualified voters. They also advocated the ministerial system in which ministers of a king are responsible to legislature, allowing legislative to check the power of executive. They believed in equal civil rights for all, but not equal voting rights (political liberalism is tied to the middle class). Liberals were not democrats and did not support the lower classes (poor) voting. |
| Nationalism | the belief that every nationality (group) should have its own state (it and Liberalism were two "ideologies of change" that threatened the status quo). Nationalism is based on an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs. This community (nation) becomes the focus of the individual's primary political loyalty. Nationalism could weaken/destroy existing governments: as in the case of Austria. Or Nationalism could strengthen/create existing governments: as in the case of France, England. Originally nationalism was opposed by Conservatives since it was 1) disruptive to the existing social order AND 2) tied to liberalism. Eventually will be embraced by conservatives as a way of getting your country "fired up" |
| German Nationalism- | Early 19th political movement that swept central Europe. It was all the rage in universities. German Nationalist wanted to see all Germanic people living in a single German state. Obviously this could be perceived as dangerous by both the Austrians and Prussians since nationalism could destroy their countries. It was a movement in which Germans became increasingly aware and proud of their "german-ness" All the best music, culture, philosophy, economic growth, was seen by them as coming from German culture. They considered themselves the wave of the future. |
| Carlsbad Decrees (Karlsbad) - | Metternich's repressive response to a German Nationalistic Student movement (Burschenschaften). Drawn up in 1819 by Metternich, the decrees closed the Burschenschaften, provided censorship of the press, and placed the universities under close supervision and control, putting the lid on German nationalism. Note the different approaches taken by the Germans and the English to civil unrest. |
| Corn Laws - (p. 668) | Corn = any grain (wheat, oats, etc). The Corn Laws imposed high Tariffs (taxes) on imported foreign grain in England. These Mercantilistic policies were designed to help the English land owners (the rich). Corn Laws resulted in higher bread prices for the poor & middle classes. Significances 1: The middle class opposed the corn laws (laissez faire / high prices) but were powerless in the early 1800s to stop it. The overturning of the corn laws in chp 21 will be a major turning point for England. 2: "marked the abandonment by the British ruling class of its traditional role of paternalistic protector of the poor." |
| Peterloo Massacre- (668) | In 1819 60,000 demonstrators protested against the Corn Laws (caused high prices on bread). A squadron of cavalry attacked the crowd and killed 11 people. This caused the British government to become even more repressive, restricting large public meetings and the dissemination of pamphlets among the poor. Significance: Although this appears to fit with the general conservative trend of the era, this event ultimately caused many in England to consider reforms in order to avoid public violence. |
| Louis XVIII- | Bourbon restored on the French throne by the Quadruple Alliance. Surprisingly, he maintained Napoleon's Concordant and Civil Code. However, liberals disliked his moderation. |
| Charles X | succeeded his brother Louis XVIII. His desire to restore France to a Pre-1789 world led to the Revolution of 1830 and the ascent of Louis Philippe. |
| Castlereagh | represented Great Britain at the Congress of Vienna. Britain had no interest in gaining continental land, but wanted to secure their control of the seas. |
| Talleyrand | represented France at the Congress of Vienna, enabled France to participate in some of the decisions. |
| Alexander I | Russian tsar. Alexander's liberal policies of increased freedom, relaxed censorship and reformed education changed slowly to that of strict and arbitrary rule. |
| Vienna | Capital of Austria and site of the Congress of Vienna (1814-15) Europe was 'managed' by Metternich from Vienna (1815-1848) Site of a liberal uprising during the Revolutions of 1848 |
| Grand Duchy of Warsaw | Polish state created by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1807 from the lands he took from Prussia. The Duchy was divided between Prussia and Russia at the Congress of Vienna. An example of Metternich's desire to return to a Pre-1789 Europe. An independent Poland technically existed but was given a Romanov dynasty. |
| German Confederation (p 617) | Created by Metternich at the Congress Vienna to replace The Holy Roman Empire which had been abolished by Napoleon. Example of their dismantling of the world created by Napoleon and the French Revolution |
| "Status Quo" | the way things are. Conservatives generally want to maintain the Status Quo. Metternich's Quadruple Alliance was determined to maintain the Status Quo. |
| Holy Alliance | An alliance of the "holy" powers (Russia, Prussia, Austria), proposed by Alexander of Russia. It fizzled. |
| Burschenschaften (p 665) | Student clubs in German Universities that supported nationalism and liberalism. The activities of these groups will prompt Metternich to issue the Karlsbad Decrees |
| Bourbon Restoration (1814-1830) | The re-establishment of the Bourbons to lands they had lost from the French Revolution/Napoleonic eras. Primarily referring to Louis XVIII's placement on the French Throne in 1815. (but could include Ferdinand VII's restoration to Spanish throne in 1814, and Ferdinand I's restoration as king of Naples and Sicily |
| UltraRoyalism | The most conservative element in the French political spectrum. Often called Legitimists. Supported the Bourbon's right to rule France (as opposed to the Orleans family's) |
| Adam Smith: Enlightenment Economist | THE architect of early 19th century ECONOMIC liberalism. The economy is governed by natural laws and should be allowed to operate without government intervention (laissez-faire). Significance: He could be used to justify the horror of industrialism on individuals. Misery does not come from greed but from 'natural economic laws'. "whew, no need to care about the poor now" |
| Concert of Europe | The effort of the Four Great Powers to resolve issues by consultation and agreement. The great powers hoped that the Concert of Europe would lead to the preservation of the balance of power and of the conservative order established at The Congress of Vienna. (How long it lasted depends upon which history book you are reading). |
| Congress System (Concert of Europe) | The unofficial attempt by the Great Powers to maintain the status quo created at Vienna. It's an informal system of mutual cooperation and consultation with the goal of upholding borders and existing governments. |
| Eastern Question | What should be done about the collapsing Ottoman Empire. Who was going to get the pieces. The Great Powers were like vultures circling a carcass. It's one (of many) reasons that the Great Powers did not stop the Greek revolt (against the Turks) |
| Tsar Nicholas I (mid 1800s) | Conservative Tsar who opposed liberal reforms in Russia and throughout Eastern Europe (Poland) |
| The Decembrist Revolt (1825) (p 680) | Liberal Revolt of Russian Officers in Moscow against the newly crowned Nicholas I. They demanded a liberal constitution and the abolition of serfdom. Brutally put down by Nicholas. These Martyrs became symbols for squished liberals in Russia for decades. Good example of one way to stop social change: violent reaction and refusal to budge. |
| King Charles X of France | succeeded his brother Louis XVIII. His desire to restore France to a Pre-1789 world led to the Revolution of 1830 and the ascent of Louis Philippe. |
| Louis Philippe (r. 1830-1848) | ) King of the French the "bourgeois monarch" he replaced his cousin Charles X after July Revolution of 1830. He got his political support from the upper middle class. Liberal reforms were made that benefited the upper bourgeoisie (constitutional changes, financial qualifications for voting were reduced) Series of revolutions that broke out throughout Europe and threatened Metternich's conservative order. In France, Louis Philippe becomes the "Citizen King" during the July Revolutions. The old Austrian Netherlands breaks away from the Dutch Republic, creates Belgium, and gets a new king, Leopold I. |
| July Monarchy 1830 - 1848 | The Monarchy of France under Louis-Philippe that was supported by the liberal bourgeoisie. Eventually, economic hardship for the poor led to a revolution in 1848 |
| Great Reform Bill 1832 (625) | Sweeping Parliamentary reforms adopted in 1832. The franchise was expanded to the upper middle class and 'rotten boroughs' were fixed. These reforms were pushed by the Whig Party in order to avoid revolution. (trees bend in a storm, so that they do not break) |
| How Britain has avoided Revolution | By making reforms to the system before people reach the breaking point. [Reform Bill of '32 etc.] Important Note: Reform and humane treatment of the poor are not necessarily done to help the poor, but to allow for those in power to remain so. (Think about that the next time someone says we need to abolish welfare. Think about who really benefits from keeping the poor fed. Pssst [stage whisper] you do) |
| Rotton Borroughs (684) | Problem in England "fixed" by the Great Reform Bill of '32 Rotton Borroughs are Political districts that have too many or too few representatives in Parliament. The industrial revolution is creating cities out of thin air. They are not represented in parliament. Districts that were important back in the middle ages (with 100 people) have more Parliamentarians than many cities of 100,000. This strikes the new middle class (who have the $$) as unfair |
| Burchshenshaften | Student nationalistic clubs in German Universities. The Carlsbad Decrees were aimed at these groups. |
| The Six Acts | English laws restricting mass political action (after Peterloo) in an attempt to prevent radical leaders from agitating and to give the authorities new powers. These were the first responses by the British authorities to demands for reform/change. Eventually, cooler heads would prevail and other methods would be attempted by the government. |
| Ultraroyalism: | ultra-royalists in France who represented the cause of the returned emigré nobility. Led by the king's (Louis XVIII) brother, Count of Artois (became Charles X), they reduced voting rights and placed restrictions on civil liberties, including freedom of the press. |
| Jean Jacques Rousseau (Romanticism) | Early Romantic whose ideas that society and material prosperity had corrupted human nature profoundly influenced Romantic Writers. In Emile, Rousseau argued that children should be given maximum freedom to explore and learn. He believed that the uniqueness of each individual should be protected against an artificial society. |
| Methodism | Movement within the Anglican Church as a reaction against deism and rationalism. Many people need/want a more personal / emotional religion. Enlightenment influenced Christianity wasn't cutting it for a lot of people. Thus, The Methodist Church stressed enthusiastic, emotional experiences as part of Christian conversion. You've all seen "tent revivals" They were created during the Romantic Movement. Hopefully, all of this stuff is beginning to connect together. |
| John Wesley | Founder of the Methodist Church. (see Methodism) |
| Casper David Friedrich | Romantic artist. (creepy tree guy) |
| Eugene Delacroix | Romantic Artist |
| Goya | Romantic Artist |
| Hegel | THE philosopher of the Romantic era. This German scholar had much influence on the world. Conflict drives history. The conflict of ideas. HE believed that a dominant idea (thesis) infuses an era, but produces its own conflicting idea (antithesis). The Conflict between them produces a new synthesis. And so on and so on. Significance: all periods of history have equal value because each was necessary to achieve the world we have today. Same goes for cultures. |
| Immanuel Kant | He was an enlightenment philosopher who tried to fit the Enlightenment notions of freedom and rationalism with Individualism and the subjective nature of human knowledge. We don't just suck up information. Our minds impose order on the world. Scary implication: your view of reality is really just based on how your brain makes sense of the world. But everyone's brain is going to organize that world differently. |
| Categorical Imperative | Although "reason" is a limited way to understand the world, we each have the ability to access the world of conscience. Kant thought all humans possessed an inborn sense of our moral duty (the categorical imperative) to act according to rules that we would expect all humans to live by. |
| anti-Federalists | American revolution. People who opposed the ratification of the Constitution |
| A Vindication of the Rights of Woman | Wollstonecraft published her masterpiece, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she demanded equal rights for women and advocated rigorous coeducation that would make women better wives and mothers, good citizens, and economically independent. |
| Abbe Sieyes | In his pamphlet What Is the Third Estate? the abbé Sieyès argued that the nobility was a tiny overprivileged minority and that the neglected third estate constituted the true strength of the French nation. Later changed view to "Confidence from below, authority from above." |
| Assembly of Notables | A group of nobles and aristocrats invited by the king to discuss reform of the government. |
| Alexander I | the czar of Russia whose plans to liberalize the government of Russia were unrealized because of the wars with Napoleon (1777-1825) |
| Ancien regime | The old order; system of government in pre-revolution France |
| Assignats | Paper currency, the French churches were used as collateral -the first French paper currency issued by the General Assembly. |
| Bastille | The political prison and armory stormed on July 14, 1789, by Partisian city workers alarmed by the king's concentration of troops at Versailles |
| Battle of the Nile | 1798 Great Britain vs. France. Horatio Nelson and the British defeat Napoleon and France. |
| Bourgeoisie | The educated, middle class of France; provided force behind the Revolution |
| Civil Constitution of the Clergy | A document, issued by the National Assembly in July 1790, that broke ties with the Catholic Church and established a national church system in France with a process for the election of regional bishops. The document angered the pope and church officials and turned many French Catholics against the revolutionaries. |
| Cult of Supreme Being | Introduced by Robespierre. Deistic natural religion. Recognized god's existence and immortality of soul. New calender w/o religious holidays, new names of months days and holidays, |
| Continental System | Napoleon's policy of preventing trade between Great Britain and continental Europe, intended to destroy Great Britain's economy. |
| Coercive Acts | American Revolution. This series of laws were very harsh laws that intended to make Massachusetts pay for its resistance. It also closed down the Boston Harbor until the Massachusetts colonists paid for the ruined tea. Also forced Bostonians to shelter soilders in their own homes. |
| Committee of Public Safety | Robespierre emerged as the leader of the Committee of Public Safety, formed by the Convention in April 1793 to deal with threats from within and outside France. Organized the defenses of France, conducted foreign policy, and centralized authority during the period 1792-1795. |
| Civil Code (1804) | Napoleonic Code; this code preserved most of the gains of the revolution by recognizing the principle of the equality of all citizens before the law, etc. |
| Declaration of the Rights of Man | Having granted new rights to the peasantry, the National Assembly issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen on August 27, 1789, guaranteeing equality before the law, representative government for a sovereign people, and individual freedom. |
| Directory | The middle-class members of the National Convention wrote yet another constitution in 1795, reorganized the legislative assembly, and chose a five-man executive called the Directory.The Directory continued to support French military expansion abroad, using war as a means to meet ever-present, ever-unsolved economic problems. The French people quickly grew weary of the unprincipled actions of the Directory, who subsequently used the army to nullify the election of a number of conservative and even monarchist deputies. |
| Declaration of Pillnitz | In June 1791 Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette attempted to leave France, but they were arrested and returned to Paris, prompting the rulers of Austria and Prussia to issue the Declaration of Pillnitz two months later.The Declaration, which professed the rulers' willingness to intervene to restore Louis XVI's monarchical rule, was expected to have a sobering effect on revolutionary France without causing war, but the rulers misjudged the revolutionary spirit in France. |
| Georges Jacques Danton | French revolutionary leader who stormed the Paris bastille and who supported the execution of Louis XVI but was guillotined by Robespierre for his opposition to the Reign of Terror (1759-1794). One of the leaders of The Mountain. |
| Estates General | In 1787 Louis XVI's minister of finance proposed a general tax on all landed property, but powerful voices insisted that such sweeping tax changes required the approval of the Estates General, the representative body of all three estates, which had not met since 1614. |
| Emigres | French nobility who fled country to escape the Revolution. Napoleon granted amnesty to one hundred thousand émigrés on the condition that they return to France and take a loyalty oath. |
| Edmund Burke | In 1790, in reaction to the events of the French Revolution, British statesman Edmund Burke (1729-1797) published Reflections on the Revolution in France,which defended inherited privileges of monarchy and aristocracy. |
| Equality, Liberty, Fraternity | New government based on these ideals. |
| The 3 Estates | In 1775 France's 25 million inhabitants were still legally divided into three orders, or estates—the clergy, the nobility, and everyone else. |
| Girondins | Delegates in the National Convention who favored a republic but feared domination by Paris, formed mainly by middle classes who opposed more radical |
| German Confederation of the Rhine | In 1806 Napoleon abolished the Holy Roman Empire and consolidated most of the 300 independent political entities into 15 German states called the German Confederation of the Rhine. |
| Grand Empire | Empire built by Napoleon and composed of three parts: an ever-expanding France, a number of dependent satellite kingdoms, and the largely independent but allied states of Austria, Prussia, and Russia |
| The Great Fear | The fear of noble reprisals against peasant uprisings that seized the French countryside and led to further revolt. |
| The Hundred Days | After being exiled to the island of Elba, Napoleon returned to France upon hearing of tension in France and with large-scale popular support he regained control. |
| Horatio Nelson | English admiral who defeated the French fleets of Napoleon but was mortally wounded at Trafalgar (1758-1805) |
| Hebert | Led the de-christianization that changed the calendar. |
| Jacobins | Radical republicans during the French Revolution. Divided into two groups: The Mountain (led by Danton and Robespierre) and the Girondins |
| John Locke | This English philosophe argued that all men were born with natural rights and that a government's purpose was to protect these rights. Ideas influenced the American and French revolutions |
| liberalism in France | Favored the idea of the sovereignty of the people, but the government should rest on the organized consent of at least the most important sections of the community. A good constitutional monarchy was the best form of government. Valued liberty more than equality. Freedom of press, free right of assembly, written constitutions, laissez-faire economy, orderly change by legislative process, dislike of wars, conquests, standing armies, and military expenditures. Hated the idea of revolution! |
| Law of the Maximum | The fixing of prices on bread and other essentials under Robespierre's rule. |
| Marquis de Lafayette | French soldier who served under George Washington in the American Revolution (1757-1834) |
| Maximilien Robespiere | A leader of Jacobin at one time, slowly gained power until he ruled France like a dictator. The period of his rule became known as the reign of terror. Executed people for virtually no reason at all. |
| Marie Antoinette | queen of France (as wife of Louis XVI) who was extremely unpopular. Her extravagance and opposition to reform contributed to the overthrow of the monarchy. She was guillotined along with her husband Louis XVI (1755-1793) |
| Montesquieu | French philosophe who advocated the separation of executive and legislative and judicial powers (1689-1755) |
| Mary Wollstonecraft | English writer and early feminist who denied male supremacy and advocated equal education for women. In A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), she demanded equal rights for women and advocated rigorous coeducation that would make women better wives and mothers, good citizens, and economically independent. |
| Marat | French revolutionary leader (born in Switzerland) who was a leader in overthrowing the Girondists and was stabbed to death in his bath by Charlotte Corday (1743-1793) |
| Marie Louise | Austrian princess, second wife of Napoleon |
| Madame de Pompadour | The mistress of Louis XV who used her ability to take away her "services" to gain power and to give advice about and make important government decisions |
| National Convention | In late September 1792 the new, popularly elected National Convention proclaimed France a republic, a nation in which the people, rather than a monarch, held sovereign power. |
| Orders in Council | Britain blockaded the ports of France and its allies, thereby preventing neutral nations from trading with these nations |
| Olympe de Gouges, Declaration of the Rights of Woman | In September 1791, Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793) published her "Declaration of the Rights of Woman," a direct challenge to revolutionaries to respect the ideals of the great 1789 declaration.De Gouges's arguments found little sympathy among the Revolution's leaders, as the vast majority of legislators and ordinary Frenchmen believed that women should focus on their domestic duties. |
| Plebiscite | a direct vote of all the people of a country or district on an important matter; a referendum |
| Place de la Concorde | place of the guillotine during the French Revolution; the largest square in western Europe; has an Egyptian obelisk and many fountains |
| Parlement of Paris | The parlements- 13 in France, were frontline defenders of liberty against royal despotism. The high court judges were the most important and influential in the Parlement of Paris. The Parlement of Paris challenged the basis of royal authority and stopped many repressive taxes. |
| Reign of Terror | The period in France where Robespierre ruled and used revolutionary terror to solidify the home front. He tried rebels and they were all judged severely and most were executed |
| Rene de Maupeou | Louis XV's financial minister. , abolished the Parlement of Paris and exciled its members to the provionces; created a new and docile Parlement of royal officials; began to re-tax the privlege groups. The majority of philosophes and public sided with the old Parlement, however. |
| Refactory Clergy | Created in response to when the Civil Constitution of the Clergy created a national church with 83 bishops and dioceses. They had the support of the King, formor aristocrats, peasants, and the urban working class. |
| Storming of the Tuleries | Louis XVI and Queen were forced into jail after the Sanscullottes and the government stromed the Tuleries in August 10, 1792. King taken prisoner and guards slaughtered. Marks the beginning of the "second revolution." |
| Sans-culottes | A radical group made up of Parisian wage-earners, and small shopkeepers who wanted a greater voice in government, lower prices, and an end of food shortages |
| Second Revolution | From 1792 to 1795, the second phase of the French Revolution, during which the fall of the French monarchy introduced a rapid radicalization of politics |
| Spanish Ulcer | Term used for Napoleon's invasion of Spain (1808) because the invasion was such a failure for Napoleon. |
| Tennis Court Oath | On June 17 the third estate voted to call itself the National Assembly, and on June 20 the members of the National Assembly pledged, in the famous Oath of the Tennis Court, not to disband until they had written a new constitution. |
| Thermidorian reaction | The respectable middle-class lawyers and professionals who had led the liberal revolution of 1789 reasserted their authority, abolishing many economic controls and restricting the local political organizations. |
| Thomas Paine, Rights of Man | Defended Enlightenment principles and France's revolution - triumph of liberty over despotism |
| Waterloo | The battle on 18 June 1815 in which Napoleon met his final defeat, Located in Belgium, the place where the british army and the prussian army forces attacked the French. |
| War of Liberation | All across Europe patriots called for a "war of liberation" against Napoleon's oppression, and on April 4, 1814, a defeated Napoleon abdicated his throne. |
| Women's March on Versailles | On October 5 some seven thousand desperate women marched the twelve miles from Paris to Versailles, invaded the National Assembly, and demanded bread.The women invaded the royal apartments, killed some of the royal bodyguards, and furiously searched for the queen, Marie Antoinette, who was saved only through the intervention of Lafayette and the National Guard. |
| White Terror | The most controversial part of the Directory. The "royalists" attacked all of the suspected revolutionaries. Napoleon first appears. "Whiff of Grapeshot" |
| Whiff of Grapeshot | Napolean's words of threat. Grapeshot is ammunition in cannons and it's a way of saying shoot the guys coming at us with cannons. White Terror. |
| 83 Departments | The National Assembly established eighty-three departments to replace the historic provinces, and it prohibited monopolies, guilds, and barriers to trade. |
| Legislative Assembly | Many members of the new representative body that convened in Paris in October 1791, called the Legislative Assembly, belonged to the Jacobin club, a political club that drew in men and women who debated the burning political questions of the day. |
| Lettre de cachet | a warrant formerly issued by a French king who could warrant imprisonment or death in a signed letter under his seal |
| Law of Suspects | The Law of Suspects was passed on September 17, 1793 and allowed the creation of revolutionary tribunals to try those suspected of treason. It made it much simpler for the Committee of Public Safety to prosecute revolutionaries. It also made it much more difficult for defendants to argue their case, and as a result many more people were convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal. |
| nationalism | the single most powerful European political ideology of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries |
| nationalists | people who believed that groups of people from the same ethnicity, language, culture, and history, should be administered by the same government |
| liberal | the 19th century term for people who wanted toleration, equality, parliamentary monarchy, constitutionalism, and free trade with no tariffs or barriers; the most prominent advocators of privilege based on wealth and property, not birth |
| conservatism | the government form based in legitimate monarchies, landed aristocracies, and established churches |
| (Edmund) Burke | a conservative political theorist |
| (Friedrich) Hegel | a conservative religious theorist and historian |
| Metternich | the Austrian diplomat that epitomized conservatism and was the chief architect of the Vienna settlement |
| Austria | the country to which the programs of liberalism and nationalism were most dangerous due to its wide variety of ethnic groups living under the same rule |
| German Confederation | the thirty-nine states established under Austrian leadership that replaced the Holy Roman Empire under the Vienna settlement, that Austria was determine to dominate to prevent the formation of a national state and the dissolution of Austria |
| Frederick William (III) | the Prussian ruler that promised a constitutional government in 1815, but instead created a Council of State responsible to him alone and eight diets headed by Junkers, supressing reform |
| Wars of Liberation | the German name for the last part of conflict with Napoleon, that resulted in his defeat |
| Burschenschaften | student associations that advocated a united German state, were often anti-Semitic, and were dissolved later by Metternich after they made clear their strong liberal intentions |
| (Karl) Sand | a student and Burschenschaft member that assassinated a conservative, and became a nationalist martyr upon his execution |
| Carlsbad Decrees | the 1819 acts issued after Sand's execution that dissolved the Burschenschaften, provided for university inspectors, and allowed censor of the press |
| Final Act | the 1820 act issued by the German Confederation that limited the subjects that the constitutional chambers of Bavaria, Wurttemberg, and Baden could discuss, and asserted the right of the monarchs to resist demands of constitutionalists |
| (Lord) Liverpool | the British lord whose ministry was unprepared to deal with postwar unemployment and poor harvests, and passed the Six Acts to support the Peterloo massacre and ensure order |
| Corn Law | the 1815 law passed by Parliament that maintained high prices for domestically produced grain by levying import duties on foreign grain |
| Poor Law | the law that many of Britain's taxpaying classes wanted to abolish, that provided public relief for the destitute and unemployed, showing the abandonment by the British ruling class of its traditional role of the paternalistic protector of the poor |
| Coercion Acts | the 1817 acts in Britain that temporarily suspended habeas corpus and extended existing laws against seditious gatherings in order to repress discontent |
| Peterloo | the 1819 massacre the ensued after panic broke out during a radical reform campaign due to the militia in the crowd, and resulted in the Six Acts |
| Six Acts | the 1819 acts that prevented radical leaders from agitation and gave the authorities new powers by banning public meetings and armed groups, tightening laws on libel, increasing newspaper taxes, and allowing for searching of homes |
| Cato Street Conspiracy | the extremely radical conspiracy headed by the demented Arthur Thistlewood to blow up the entire British cabinet, which helped discredit the movement for parliamentary reform |
| Bourbon | the restored rule to France in 1814 |
| Louis XVIII | the political realist that became the constitutional monarch of France under his constitution, the Charter, and although he was at first open to liberalism, he was persuaded by ultraroyalists to drive liberals to near illegal status |
| the Charter | the constitution of France that provided for a hereditary monarchy and bicameral legislature, religious toleration, and did not challenge the property rights of landowners that had benefited from the revolution |
| Ultraroyalists | supporters of the monarchy in France that strongly opposed liberalism and stopped its spread in France |
| White terror | the bloodbath of royalists in France against former revolutionaries and supporters of Napoleon out of a need for revenge for their suffering during the revolution |
| Concert of Europe | the arrangement for major powers to consult each other on matters affecting Europe as a whole and resolving mutual foreign policy issues, preventing one nation from taking major action in international affairs without obtaining the consent of the others (it was especially directed against France and Russia) |
| Ferdinand (VII) | Spain's ruler after Napoleon who ignored his pledge for a Constitution until officers rebelled, but the Holy Alliance came and suppressed the revolution, restoring him to the throne |
| Congress of Troppau | the 1820 gathering between the Holy Alliance, Britain, and France that declared stable governments allowed to intervene to restore order in countries experiencing a revolution, aimed towards tumultuous Italy |
| (George) Canning | Castlereagh's successor, who was interested in British commerce and trade and supported the Latin American move for independence so that they could dominate trade with them, also ending the War of Jenkin's Ear |
| (the) Greek Revolution | the event that caused Philhellenic societies in nearly every country and was famous because it attracted the support and participation of many writers and liberals |
| Treaty of London | the 1827 agreement that demanded Trukish recognition of Greek independence |
| Treaty of Adrianople | the 1829 agreement that gained Ottoman holdings in Romania for Russia and allowed Britain, France, and Russia to decide the future of Greece |
| Treaty of London | the 1830 agreement that declared Greece an independent kingdom and Otto I the first king of the new Greek kingdom |
| (Kara) George | a Serbian leader that lead guerrilla warfare against the Ottomans and helped build national self-identity and attracted the interest of the great powers, although unsuccessful |
| Milos (Obrenovitch) | the leader of the Serbian rebellion that gained administrative autonomy for Serbia and in 1830 independence, and became hereditary prince of the expanding nation |
| Serbia | the country that gained close support from Russia because of their Slav heritage and Eastern Orthodox church, while having tension with Austria because of their expansion of territory |
| Haiti | the country that achieved independence during its revolution 1791-1804, sparked by the policies of the French Revolution, and that demonstrated that slaves of African origins could lead a revolt against white masters and mulatto freemen |
| (Toussaint) L'Ouverture | a former slave that emerged as the leader of the Haitian slave rebellion that caused enormous violence, caused from the Colonial Assembly's refusal to grant mulattos the right of white men, and eventually abolished slavery with French assistance before getting captured by Napoleon in 1803 who feared Haiti was undermining his authority |
| Hispanola | the island that Haiti is part of |
| (Jean-Jacques) Dessalines | the Haitian military leader of slave origin who resisted Napoleon and helped his country in 1804 be the first one to achieve independence from a slave-led rebellion |
| creoles | the merchants, landowners, and professional people of Spanish descent in South America who were most discontented by Iberian rule and secured their countries' independence, although to no benefit of slaves, natives, mulattos, or mestizos |
| juntas | local Creole political committees that claimed the right to govern different regions of South America, which ended the privileges of peninsulares |
| Rio de la Plata | the first region in South America to assert its independence, by thrusting off Spanish authority in 1810, as well as sending forces to liberate Paraguay and Uruguay, although these battles were lost |
| (Jose de) San Martin | the leading general of the Rio de Plata forces who marched over the Andes to secure Chile's independence in 1817, and then sailed to Peru to drive out royalist forces there as well in 1820 |
| (Simon) Bolivar | the man who freed Venezuela and was named president, and then recaptured Peru after an unfavorable meeting with San Martin in 1823, marking the end of Spain's effort to retain its South American empire |
| (Miguel) Hidalgo | a Creole priest that in 1810 organized a rebellion of the Indians, blacks, and mestizos in his parish, capturing several cities and marched to Mexico city, where he was captured and executed |
| Brazil | the country that the Portuguese royal family fled to, and ended up peacefully obtaining its independence |
| Joao | the prince regent of Brazil that addressed many local complaints of the Creoles such as expanding trade before being forced to return to Portugal |
| Dom Pedro | the regent of Brazil that embraced the cause of Brazilian independence and became emperor of a peacefully independent Brazil, succeeded by his son |
| Alexander (I) | the Russian tsar that first tried Enlightenment ideas, but then turned away from reform and took the lead in suppressing liberalism and nationalism |
| Constantine | the brother of Tsar Alexander I, who married a woman who was not of royal blood and thus excluded himself from the throne although he was more popular than his brother |
| Nicholas (I) | the tsar whose reign was disputed and was faced within days by rebellious junior offices, leading to the Decembrist Revolt and repression of liberalism and nationalism |
| Decembrist Revolt | the refusal of many junior officers to swear allegiance to Nicholas I as tsar, leading to a massacre and investigation of the secret army societies; it was the first rebellion in modern Russian history whose instigators had specific political goals--constitutional government and abolition of serfdom |
| autocracy | the type of rule the Nicholas I's reign embodied |
| Official Nationality | the Russian program that placed the church as a basis for morality, education, and intellectual life, taught Russians to spurn social mobility, and glorified the Russian nationality as a source of perennial wisdom that separated them from the corruption and turmoil of the West |
| Organic Statute | the 1832 declaration that Poland was an integral part of the Russian empire, triggered by riots in Warsaw and a small revolution that tried to depose Nicholas as king of Poland |
| Charles X | the French monarch that strongly believed in rule by divine right, took conservative actions against aristocrats that had gained land in the revolution, restored primogeniture, and attempted a royalist seizure of power that ended in his abdication |
| 1830 | the year in which Charles X called for new elections, but the liberals scored a stunning victory, and so he attempted a royalist takeover |
| Four Ordinances | Charles X's act that restricted the press, dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, called for new elections, and limited franchise to the wealthiest citizens, which lead to a rebellion in Paris and Charles' abdication |
| Louis Philippe | the french king that replaced Charles X and headed a more liberal government with a constitution and a restored Chamber of Deputies, although socially the rule proved conservative |
| July Monarchy | the French regime headed by Louise Philippe, that made a constitution in which Catholicism was not the official religion, censorship was abolished, and the king had to cooperate with the Chamber of Deputies |
| Algiers | the city that Charles X seized control of during his reign, making it later an integral part of France due to merchant ties and French immigrants into its large territory |
| Belgium | a country that had been merged with Holland in 1815 but fought and won for its independence in 1830, becoming a guaranteed neutral state |
| Great Reform Bill | the British law published in 1832 that expanded the size of the English electorate but kept property and gender as qualification for voting, which just widened the variety of voters; this was the reason why revolution in Britain was not necessary, because they had the same institutions, just influenced by different people |
| Ireland | the country that continuously caused trouble for Great Britain because they were not represented in the Parliament |
| Act of Union | William Pitt the Younger's act that allowed Protestant Irish to be elected into Parliament |
| (Daniel) O'Connell | the Irish nationalist that was elected to Parliament although he was not legally eligible, which helped to end the Anglican monopoly on British government |
| Catholic Emancipation Act | the act that allowed Roman Catholics to be members of Parliament, showing the compromise reached between conservatives and liberals |
| (Earl) Grey | the leader of the Whigs, who helped Britain form a government by replacing "rotten" boroughs (ones with few voters) with representatives for unrepresented cities, increasing number of voters 50%, and forcing the passage of the reform bill by threatening to reform the House of Lords |
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