127 terms

Terms	Definitions
septum	Divides the right and left chambers of the heart
autoimmunity	Condition involving production of antibodies reactive with one's own tissues
bioinformatics	the application of computational methods to the storage and analysis of biological data
polygenic	traits controlled by two or more gene pairs
chemotaxis	Movement of a cell directed by a chemical concentration gradient. The movement of lymphcytes, PMNs, monoctyes, and other leukocytes inoto various tissues is often directed by gradients of chemokines.
single nucleotide polymorphism	produced when the DNA is cut up by a restriction enzyme
genome-wide association studies	a large scale analysis of the genomes with the aim of finding genetic markers that correlate with that phenotype or disease
beta-adrenergic receptor agonists	Norepinephrine, Epinephrine, Beta 1, Beta 2, Nonselective beta agonist, Dopamine
phagocytes	the first line of cellular defense against pathogens and are free and fixed macrophages, neutophils, eosinophils and mast cells
macrophages	Found within the lymph nodes, they are phagocytes that destroy bacteria, cancer cells, and other foreign matter in the lymphatic stream.
natural killer cells	A type of white blood cell that can kill tumor cells and virus-infected cells; an important component of innate immunity. they are Large, granular, cytotoxic lymphocytes that circulate in the blood. NK cells are important in innate immunity to viruses and other intracellular pathogens and also kill certain tumor cells. They are the cytotoxic cells in antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC).
innate immunity	General, non-specific protection to the body, including the skin (barrier), gastric acid, phagocytes, lysozyme, and complement.
acquired immunity	Formation of antibodies and lymphocytes after exposure to an antigen
basophils	secrete histamine and heparin, is 0.5-1% present in the body, released histamine attracts other WBC and causes blood vessles to dilate
B-cells	manufactured in the bone marrow, create AB for isolating and destroying invading bacteria and viruses.
T-cells	small lymphocytes that mature in the thymus as a result of exposure to the hormone thymosin, which is secreted by the thymus
chemical mediator	substance formed by mast cells, certain blood cells, and other body cells and that is released during inflammatory and allergic reactions, releases Lysozyme, Histamine, Interferon
Mast cells	found in the connective tissue of the dermis; respond to injury, infection, or allergy by producing and releasing substances, including heparin and histamine
erythrocytes	RBCs, carry oxygen & CO2 and regulate body's acid-base balance. Are produced by erythropoiesis and destroyed by hemolysis
dendritic cells	Antigen-presenting cells, located mainly in lymphatic tissues and skin, that is particularly efficient in presenting antigens to naive helper T cells, thereby initiating a primary immune response.
what are the chemical mediators that block inflammation	Glucocorticoids, Interleukin-10 (IL-10), Prostacyclins
glucocorticoids	helps body resist long-term stressors; increases blood glucose levels; controls effects of inflammation from edema
prostacyclins	chiefly prevents formation of the platelet plug in hemostasis (part of blood clotting); it does this by inhibiting platelet activation; antagonist to thromboxanes
blocking cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes and inhibiting the synthesis of prostaglandins throughout the body which cause inflammation and pain	NSAIDs work by
interleukin-10	Type 2 cytokine; secreted by CD4+ Th2 cells; inhibits IL-12 secretion by dendritic cells + macrophages
How does the innate immune response lead to an acquired immune response?	innate immunity includes phagocytosis, complement activation, natural killer cells. Acquired immunity includes secondary antibody mediated response, and secondary cell mediated response
What are cyclooxygenase enzymes and how do NSAIDS inhibit them?	COX enzymes are derived from NSAIDS- the NSAIDs act as nonselective inhibitors of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX), inhibiting both the cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) isoenzymes
What are the similarities and differences of antibodies	"GAMED" IgG: Is the main antibody of the secondary immune system, IgA occurs as a dimer and has two subclasses A1 and A2. IgM is a pentameric molecule important in the PRIMARY immune response and is secreted from B cells and lymphocytes. IgE is very prevalent in allergy responses, migrate from circulation system to tissue and releases histamine from mast cells when bound to antigen. IgD has a short half life and is 1% present on B-Cells
What is the difference between Cox1 and Cox2 enzymes?	COX-1, which is involved in pain, clotting, and protecting the stomach; COX-2, which is involved in the pain produced by inflammation. It is undetectable in most tissues and is an inducible enzyme, becoming abundant in activated macrophages and other cells at sites of inflammation.
Are Cox2-specific NSAIDS better than universal inhibitors? why or why not?	they are better in a way because of their specificity. Universal inhibitors would inhibit both the Cox1 and Cox2 family members rather than being specific for the Cox2 family member. But the trade off is the GI distress as a side effect
What is meant by the plurality of mediators?	Different mediators are required to produce different aspects of the inflammatory response: Sequential release is necessary throughout to co-ordinate the process, while Synergism between mediators is required to produce the FULL response
symptoms of Gout	acute: swollen, red, hot, painful inflamed joints, great toe chronic gout: urate deposits under skin, renal stones
How does Uric Acid play a role in the formation of Gout	Uric acid is a purine (building blocks for DNA); an abnormality in the breakdown of this acid, and the crystals are deposited in the joints and tissue
Rheumatoid Arthritis	Anti-IgG antibodies, MHC 1 & 2 (genetic susceptability)
How does Acute arthritis differ from Chronic arthritis	Acute arthritis has a rapid onset, severe symptoms, mediated my components of INNATE immune response (especially neutrophils), and can evolve to chronic arthritis. Chronic arthritis is gradual with moderate symptoms (AM stiffness), ADAPTIVE immune response (T cells and macrophages), lead to joint remodeling: painful!
Rheumatoid Factors	systemic disease that causes inflammation of joints, conjuctivitis, infecting the pleura
How do multiple factors contribute to the development of RA?	environmental and hereditary factors
What are the major treatment modalities used for RA (ie what is the difference between first line drugs and DMARDS)?	First line drugs such as aspirin and cortisone reduce pain and inflammation while DMARDS or 2nd line drugs (disease modifying antirheumatic drugs) are drugs like methotrexate and hydroxychloroquine that promote disease remission and prevent joint destruction BUT are NOT anti-inflammatory
what are the 4 Chronic Inflammatory Disease States	Gout, RA Systemic Lupus Erythematosus, Asthma
what are the major symptoms of Lupus?	either of two inflammatory diseases affecting connective tissue, one largely confined to the skin, the other affecting the joints and internal organs. Symptoms include 1) Fever, 2) Rash, 3) Alopecia, 4) Pericarditis, 5) Raynaud's phenomenon, 6) Pleurisy, 7) Nephritis
how are NSAIDS and steroids are used as treatment options for Lupus?	steroids are used for rashes, NSAIDS are used for joint pain and fever.
what inflammatory diseases spark innate immunity?	"POG" Pseudogout, Osteoarthritis, Gout
what inflammatory diseases spark adaptive immunity?	RA, Lupus, Lyme disease
what is the prevalence of Alzheimers in our population?	4.5 million. By 2050 13.2 million older Americans are expected to have AD
Symptoms of Alzheimers	Deficits in explicit and implicit memory. as well as gradual progression to more serious memory loss. Sundowning. The end stage is usually coma; death usually caused by an infection
What are plaques and tangles?	Amyloid plaques: deposits of beta-amyloid (abnormal byproduct of amyloid precursor protein, or APP; kills adjacent neurons). Plaques are fairly evenly distributed across cerebral cortex. Neurofibrillary tangles: collapsed protein structures within neurons. Early in AD, accumulate in hippocampus and MTL, relating to semantic and episodic memory deficits.
How does amyloid precursor protein (APP) give rise to beta-amyloid?	amyloid precursor protein is the protein to amyloid plaque in that APP sticks through the neuron membrane, enzymes cut the APP into fragments of protein (including beta amyloid).
what form of beta amyloid is associated with plaque formation?	beta amyloid fragments come together in clumps to form plaques. Beta amyloid plaques are a precurser state to the development of AD
what are "the Hallmarks of AD"	BAP and neurofibrillary tangles
Vioxx	a Cox-2 inhibitor (trade name Vioxx) that relieves pain without harming the digestive tract, generic name rofecoxib. It is a competitive inhibitor of prostaglandin synthesis cyclooxygenase 2 thereby reducing inflammation
What are the main parts of the brain and their functions	Cerebral Hemispheres, Cerebellum, Brain Stem, Hippocampus, Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Limbic System
what is a first degree heart block	Conduction of action potentials is slowed because of AV node block-Caused when conduction through AV is more than .2 sec, causes long PR interval
How is Blood pressure measured?	systolic pressure over diastolic pressure answer is in mm of Hg
how does preload and afterload affect blood pressure?	Aortic output pressure rises as the venous filling pressure is increased. Increased venous return= increased cardiac output affecting BP
what is the cardiac output?	Heart rate x stroke volume (HR X SV), it is The volume of blood pumped out of heart per minute
How is cardiac output related to stroke volume?	Starlings Law: Ventricular contraction is PROportional to muscle fiber stretch
What are the major factors contributing to hypertension?	increased cardiac output (cardiac function), normal CO w/incr. SVR (vascular function), Excessive Na+ and H20 retention (renal function), and abnormal reg. of basal sympathetic tone (Neuroendocrine tone)
what is atherosclerosis and how does it contribute to hypertension?	caused by thickening of an artery wall bc of accum. of fatty materials.
how can you prevent cardiovascular disease?	don't smoke, eat a good diet, exercise regularly
what are the major risk factors for heart disease?	smoking, drug abuse, weight gain (more than 20% above rec. wt.)
how does cholesterol affect the likelihood of cardiovascular disease?	too much cholesterol causes plaque build-up inside arteries
what is the difference between LDL and HDL?	LDL is bad and HDL is good
symptoms of a heart attack or stroke?	Chest tightening; Chest pain; Numbness; Pale; Shortness of breath
what are the major functions of the blood?(3)	(1) Transportation gases, nutriets, hormones, waste products, heat], (2) Regulation (homeostasis, pH, body temp, osmotic pressure], (3) Protection [clotting, WBCs, proteins]
what is the clotting cascade?	a cascade of reactions in which each clotting factor activates the next in a fixed sequence resulting in the formation of fibrin threads
how are zymogens involved in the clotting cascade?	They are activated by damaged tissue surfaces. Activation of zymogen alters the charge ratio- Constituent peptides aggregate and form fibrin (Clot)- Anticlotting system Dissolution of clots (fibrin) into fibrinogen.
how are zymogens and the clotting cascade involved in the formation of a thrombus?	the clotting cascade leads to fibrin formation and zymogens help catalyze the next reaction in the cascade, resulting in a cross-linked formation
How is thromboxane A2 involved in the process?	TXA2 is prod. by activated platelets which stim. activation of new platelets; leads to incr. localization of receptors and fibrinogen binds to these, strengthening the clot
what is coronary artery disease and how does it differ from congestive heart failure?	occurs when the coronary arteries that supply the myocardium become BLOCKED, and CHF is from ineffecient amounts of blood being pumped to the body = a rise in venous BP
what are the two main classes of acute myocardial infarction?	transmural MI is from atherosclerosis of a mjr artery and extends to the whole thickness of the myocardium; while subencardial is just a small area thought to be a result of locally decr. bl supply
what is the difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic immune system?	SIS is the fight-or-flight response while PSSt is the rest-and-digest
how is angioplasty and coronary artery bypass surgery used as treatment for heart disease?	AngioPLasty (PCTA) creates a small space by inserting and inflating a baloon in the blocked artery and putting in a mesh stent, while CABS reroutes or "bypasses" the blood around clogged arteries
what are the four major drug classes for hypertension?	Sympathetic nervous system suppressors, Renin-angiotensin system targeting drugs - ACE inhibitors, Diuretics
sympathetic nervous system suppressors	beta antagonists, alpha agonists slow the heart rate
direct vasodilators	decrease the BP by relaxing vascular smooth muscle and reducing SVR (stroke volume rate)
how is renin involved in treatement for heart disease?	Secreted by the kidney, it converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I, increases fluid retention, which increases norepinephrine rel. enhancing sympathetic function FINAL product is stimulating cardiac and vascular hypertrophy
How are ACE inhibitors used for heart disease?	increase BradyKinin (by inhibiting its degradation) further lowering BP. BradyKinin is a peptide that causes Bl vessels to dilate and decrease BP
bundle of His	a bundle of modified heart muscle that transmits the cardiac impulse from the atrioventricular node to the ventricles causing them to contract
fibrillation	extremely rapid contractions of the heart that lack the power needed to pump blood around the body
flutter	abnormally rapid beating of the auricles of the heart (especially in a regular rhythm)
purkinje fibers	The smallest (and final) fibers in the cardiac conduction system. The Purkinje fibers transmit the cardiac impulse to the ventricular muscle.
pulmonary circuit	carries blood to the lungs for gas exchange and returns it to the heart
systemic circuit	carries oxygen-rich blood to all body organs and then returns oxygen-poor blood to the right atrium via the veins
portal system	a system of veins that carries blood from one bed of cappillaries to another and comprises the splenic, inferior mesenteric, superior mesenteric and portal veins
preload	Volume of blood that fills the heart and stretches the heart muscle fibers during its resting phase (volume of blood in ventricles at end of diastole, just prior to contraction)
afterload	the pressure that must be overcome for the ventricles to eject blood
zymogens	Digestive enzymes are released in inactive forms, necessary to prevent the digestive enzymes from autodigesting the cells that produce them-become activated in the GI
cardiac output	volume of blood pumped by one ventricle per minute; stroke volume x heart rate
ischemia	local anemia in a given body part sometimes resulting from vasoconstriction or thrombosis or embolism, deficiency in blood supply to the tissues
bradycardia	abnormally slow heartbeat
Stroke volume	the volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each heartbeat/contraction
P wave	depolarization of the ATRIA
PR interval	Time required for conduction from the SA node to AV node. The time between atrial and ventricular deplarization. This is normally 0.12 to 0.2 seconds.
QRS complex	depolarization of VENTRICAL membranes
ST segment	the part of an ECG that reflects the end of the QRS complex to the beginning of the T wave
T wave	in ECG last wave of cardiac cycle corresponding to REPOLARIZATION- getting ready for the P wave
ways to ace this test	Study, drink tea, study, remember what you read, stretch, write answers as acronyms, study, relax, go to sleep early and have a good breakfast the next day:)
what are eicosanoids?	They are arachadonic acid metabolites. Leukotrienes, lipoxins, and prostaglandins/prostacyclins
what are bradykinins	component of Kinin system. Increase Vascular permeability stimulate smooth muscle contractility and mediates pain
how is AD a part of the innate immune system?	Amyloid beta protein is an antimicrobial peptide; these proteins are part of the innate immune system, which provides a broad defense against a wide range of pathogens
the activity of what has been "implicated in the regulation of learning and memory functioin"?	a-secretase
Amyloid-beta protein comes in what two forms?	A 40 aa peptide and a 42 aa peptide. the 42aa fragment leads to the formation of amyloid plaques within the brain
how are Tau proteins involved in AD?	they interact with tubulin to stabilize microtubules. They have 2 ways of controlling microtubule stability: isoforms and phosphorylation
how many Tau isoforms exist in human brain tissue?	6
how do B-amyloid plaques predispose people into developing Tau protein tangles?	some theories are hyperphosphorylation of all 6 isoforms of tau, referred to as PHF-tau
Sympathetic nervous system suppressors: beta antagonists vs. alpha agonists	ALPHA agonists Stimulate receptors, results in decrease in HR, PVR, drop in BP, while BETA antagonists decrease the oxygen requirement of heart muscle (used for angina pectoris)
Angiotensin II receptor antagonists	Also known as ARBs (a very potent vasoconstrictor) from binding to receptor sites is vascular smooth muscle, brain, heart, kidneys, and adrenal gland, thus blocking the blood pressure-elevating and sodium-retaining effects of angiotensin II
These are prescribed for HTN. They increase renal excretion of sodium & water from body, decreasing total fluid volume. When less fluid in body, less pressure or force is needed to pump the blood thru the body.	diuretics
Renin-angiotensin system targeting drugs	AKA angiotensinogenase, is an enzyme that helps regulate bl. pressure and H2O balance
calcium channel antagonists	reduce the influx of calcium int the cell, prevent or reverse spasm of the coronary bld. vessels
potassium channel agonists	aKA Minoxidil, used for severe trtmnt resistant hypertension- works to inhibit Ca++ channel activity which causes hyperpolarization of the cell. "hirsutism" HAIR is a side effect
smooth muscle of arterioles, causing vasodilation	Direct vasodilators on this
Glucocorticoids	corticosteroids (like cortisol) that have an important influence on the metabolism of sugars, fats, and proteins and have a powerful anti-inflammatory effect
Methotrexate	DMARD and chemotherapy: Folic acid analogue inhibits dihydrofolate reductase, which is required for new DNA synthesis.
Abatacept	selective costim modulator that inhibits Tcell activation, indicated for RA
Aricept	cholinesterase inhibitor- used for RA
Albuterol	This drug is a beta-2 agonist used for asthma- it is a bronchiodilator
what is a second degree heart block	Conduction of action potentials is slowed and blocked-Very, very prolonged PQ interval-Multiple P waves without QRS complex occur regularly. only 1 out of the 2-4 atrial APs can pass to ventricles
third degree heart block	AV cannot conduct impulses to the ventricles, so the remaining nodal tissue becomes the pacemaker.There is no correlation between P waves and QRS complex
the four main types of atherosclerosis are	Coronary Artery Disease (CAD), Carotid Artery Disease, PeriPheral Arterial Disease (PAD), AbdominAl AnginA and Bowell Infarction (AABI)
Cerebral Hemispheres	(CNS) control memory, consciousness and voluntary activities.
Cerebellum	the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance
Brain Stem	the part of the brain that controls functions including heart rate, breathing, and body temperature
Hippocampus	seahorses, memory
Thalamus	the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; egg-shaped. it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex
Hypothalamus	brain structure below the thalamus that acts as a control center for recognition and analysis of hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, and body temperature
Limbic System	neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.

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