AP Psych 180 Terms

Terms	Definitions
absolute threshold	the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.
action potential	a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.
adolescence	the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.
affective disorders	psychological disorders in which there is a primary disturbance in mood
agression	physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.
alcohol	a liquor or brew containing alcohol as the active agent
algorithims	a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.
amnesia	the loss of memory.
anal stage	Freud's pychosexual period during which a child learns to control his bodily excretions
anxiety	an emotional state of high energy, with the stress response as the body's reaction to it.
artificial intelligence	computer systems that imitate the products of human perception and thought
attachment	an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
attention	the work of caring for or attending to someone or something
attitudes	evaluative statements or judgements concerning objects, people, or events
autonomic nervous system	the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
avoidance learning	learning to avoid events or conditions associated with dreaded or aversive outcomes
axon	the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.
behavior	the aggregate of the responses or reactions or movements made by an organism in any situation
behavior modification	psychotherapy that seeks to extinguish or inhibit abnormal or maladaptive behavior by reinforcing desired behavior and extinguishing undesired behavior
behaviorism	the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
binocular depth cues	depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.
biofeedback	a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.
brain	portion of the central nervous system contained within the cranium
case study	an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.
central nervous system	the brain and spinal cord.
cerebellum	the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
cerebral cortex	the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center.
cerebral hemispheres	the two halves of the cerebrum; the left and right
chromosomes	threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
classical conditioning	a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
client-centered therapy	a technique where psychologists create a comfortable, non-judgemental environment by demonstrating congruence (genuineness), empathy, and unconditional positive regard toward their patients while using a non-directive approach.
cochlea	a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.
cognitive development	The development of the brain, and its functions--including perception, memory, and knowledge
cognitive dissonance	The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.
concrete operations	A state of cognitive development as described by Piaget at which children are able to understand concrete problems and take multiple perspective of a problem to solve it
conditioned response	In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus	In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus comes to trigger a conditioned response
conditioning	The process of modifying a person's behavior
conflict	A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
conformity	Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
consciousness	Our awareness of ourselves and our environment
control group	In research, the group of subjects who does not receive the independent variable
corpus callosum	The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
correlation coefficient	A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
correlation method	A method in which two variables are observed to determine whether there is a relationship between them
cross sectional research	A study in which people at different ages are compared with one another
cross sequential research	Studies that combine methodologies from both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies by assessing subjects of two or more age groups at two or more different times
defense mechanisms	In psychoanalytical theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
delusions	False beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders
dendrites	The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
dependent variable	The experimental factor--in psychology, the behavior or mental process--that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulation of the independent variable
depression	A disorder marked by sadness, inactivity, difficulty with thinking and concentration, a significant increase or decrease in appetite, time spent sleeping, feelings of dejectedness and hopelessness
depth perception	The ability to see objects in three dimension although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
developmental stage theories	Theories that argue development is discontinuous and relies upon distinct stages, which have their own set of behavior
discrimination	In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
distance cue	A feature of something perceived that is used in the brain
dream	A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing though a sleeping person. it is notable for its hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities and incongruities, and for the person's delusional acceptance of the context and later difficulties remembering it
drug	Any substance, other than food, that affects the normal physiological and psychological functioning of the body
ego	The largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
electroencephalogram	An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
emotion	A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience
empiricism	The view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the sense and (b) science flourishes through observation and experimentation
experimental group	in research, the group of subjects who receive the independent variable
extinction	The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
eye	The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
fear	An emotion experienced in anticipation of some specific pain or danger (usually accompanied by a desire to flee or flight)
forgetting	The apparent loss of information already enclosed and stored in an individual
formal operations	a period between age twelve to adulthood when people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage
free association	a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
fundamental attribution error	the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.
genes	The biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein
genital stage	The fifth and final stage of Freud's psychosexual development that begins during puberty. During this stage, the individual develops a strong interest in the opposite sex. If the other psychosexual stages have been successfully completed, the individual will develop into a well-balanced, warm and caring adult
gestalt principles of perception	Figure and ground; similarity; proximity; congruity; continuity; closure; area; symmetry
gestalt	School of thought that looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole
hallucinations	False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
hearing	The ability to perceive sounds by detecting vibrations via an organ such as the ear
hereditary	The genetic transmissions of a particular quality or trait from parent to offspring
heuristics	simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgment and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier, but more error-prone than algorithms
humanistic psychology	theoretical view of human nature which stresses a positive view of human nature and the strong belief in physical homeostasis
hunger	The physical urge to eat that is prompted by immediate need for energy
hypnosis	social interaction in which one person suggest to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
hypothalmus	neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
hypothesis testing	Statistical research used to determine whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected
id	contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. It operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification
identification	process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate the parents' values into their developing superegos
imprinting	process by which certain animals form attachment during a critical period very early in life
independent variable	experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
information processing approach	This psychological theory compares the human brain to a computer. It includes the idea that the brain has a very large capacity to store information in the long-term, but a more limited capacity for information which requires our attention
intelligence	Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
IQ	Defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age(ca) multiplied by 100. (thus, it equals ma/ca x 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100
James-Lange Theory	theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
just-noticable difference	difference between two stimuli that (under properly controlled experimental conditions) is detected as often as it is not detected
language	Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning
law of effect	Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
learned helplessness	hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated adverse effects
learning	relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
limbic system	doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression, and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and the hypothalamus
longitudinal research	research in which the same people are re-studied and re-tested over a long period
long term memory	relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system
love	An emotion of deep affection or devotion
memory	persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
mental illness	clinically diagnosable disorder that significantly interferes with an individual's cognitive, emotional or social abilities
MMPI	most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening procedure
mnemonics	Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
modeling	process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
motivation	need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
multiple personality disorder	rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities
nature-nurture controversy	long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
needs	requirements necessary for survival and self-actualization
negative reinforcement	process in which a response increases in frequency due to the avoidance , escape, or removal of an aversive stimulus from an organism's environment
nervous system	The body's speedy, electrochemical communication system, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
neuron	nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
neurosis	Relatively mild emotional disorders (such as mild depression or phobias)
neurotransmitters	chemical messengers that transverse the synaptic gap between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
normal distribution	symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes
obedience	act of obeying orders from others
oedipus complex	a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
operant conditioning	type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
oral stage	first sexual and social stage of an infant's development, the mouth is the focus of the libido and satisfaction comes from suckling, chewing, and bitin
pain	symptom of some physical hurt or disorder
parasympathetic nervous system	division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
perception	process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
periphrial nervous system	sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body
personality	individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
personality disorders	pPsychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning
phallic stage	The third of Freud's psychosexual development in which genitals are the source of pleasure and the Oedipus Complex begins
phobia	anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation
placebo	inactive substance that looks the same as, and is administered in the same way as, a drug in a clinical trial
positive reinforcement	process of following an action with a reward, thereby increasing that action
preoperational stage	In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language, but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic
problem solving	ability to get answers through a conscious, organized process
projection	Psychoanalytical defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
psychoanalysis	Freud's theory of personality and therapeutic technique that attributes our thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences--and the therapist's interpretations of them--released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight
psychology	The science of behavior and mental processes
psychosis	Any major mental disorder that involves loss of contact with reality; usually involves delusions and/or hallucinations
psychotherapy	emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained therapist and someone who suffers from psychological difficulties
puberty	period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
punishment	act of imposing something unpleasant or aversive on a person in response to unwanted behavior
REM	recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
rationalization	Defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions
reaction formation	Psychoanalytical defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings
recall	measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the blank test
recognition	measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
regression	Defense mechanism in which the individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixed
rehearsal	conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage
reinforcement	increase in the strength of a response following the change in environment immediately following that response
repression	psychoanalytical theory the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
retina	light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones, plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
rods	retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
rorschach test	most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Herman Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing interpretations of the blots
sample	items selected at random from a population and used to test hypotheses about the population
schedules of reinforcement	When and how often the behavior is reinforced
schizophrenia	group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions
self-actualization	the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
semantic memory	everything one knows, not connected to any specific experience where it was acquired (unlike episodic memory), and part of declarative memory
sensorimotor image	the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities
serial postion effect	Our tendency to recall best the last and first items on a list
shaping	operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal
short-term memory	activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. Working memory is a similar concept that focuses more on the process of briefly stored information
significant level	probability of a false rejection on the null hypothesis in a statistical test
significant difference	difference between tests of two or more variables; significance varies with the desired confidence level
sleep	periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness--as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation
smell	sensation that results when olfactory receptors in the nose are stimulated by particular chemicals in gaseous form
social psychology	scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
socialization	process by which individuals learn to behave willingly, in accordance with the prevailing standards of their culture
spontaneous recovery	re-appearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned response
stereotype	generalized (sometimes accurate, but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
stress	process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening and challenging
superego	part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations
sympathetic nervous system	division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
synapse	junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft
systematic desensitization	type of counter-conditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias
taste	sensation that results when taste buds in the tongue and throat convey information about the chemical composition of a soluble stimulus
thalamus	brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
thematic apperception test	projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
token economy	operant conditioning procedure that rewards desired behavior. A patient exchanges a token of some sort, earned for exhibiting the desired behavior, for various privileges or treats
traits	characteristic pattern of behavior or disposition to feel and act as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
transference	in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)
unconditioned response	in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), such as salivation when food is in the mouth
unconditioned stimulus	in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally--naturally and automatically--triggers a response
unconscious	reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware
vision	the perceptual experience of seeing

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AP Psych 180 Terms

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