Chapters 45-47: Endocrine System, Reproductive System, and Embryology
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188 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Hormone | A type of molecule that is released into the blood or extracellular fluid to communicate regulatory messages around the body; they regulate reproduction, development, energy metabolism, growth, and behavior |
| Ecdysteriod | A hormone in caterpillars that stimulates the growth of adult cells and death of larval cells. it also stimulates the behaviors leading up to the motionless pupal stage |
| Endocrine system | One of the body's systems of communication and regulation, this does its job by means of chemical signaling |
| Nervous System | One of the body's systems of communication and control, this works using a network of neurons that transmit electrical signals; these can control neurons, muscles, and endocrine cells |
| Local regulators | Molecules that act over short distances and diffuse into their target cells |
| Paracrine signaling | Target cells that lie near the cell secreting the local regulators |
| Autocrine | The target cell that is the secreting cell itsef |
| Neurotransmitters | Molecules released by neurons that diffuse short distances to bind to receptors on target cells; they are used for sensation, memory, cognition, and movement |
| Neurohormones | They are released by specialized cells into the bloodstream and travel until they reach their target cells |
| Neurosecratory cells | Nerve cells with axon terminals in the bloodstream |
| Pheromones | Members of the same animal species communicate by releasing these chemical into the environment; they can be used for defining territories, warning of predators, and finding mates |
| Endocrine glands | Ductless organs such as the thyroid and the parathyroid, they secrete hormones directly into the surrounding fluid |
| Signal Transduction | The changes in cellular proteins tha t convert the extracellular chemical signal to a specific intracellular response |
| Epinephrine (adrenaline) | A hormone secreted by the adrenal glands that raises heart rate and speeds up other processes in times of need or danger |
| Growth Factors | Hormones that stimulate cell proliferation and differentiation, they are considered polypeptide local regulators along with cytokinins |
| Nitric Oxide (NO) | Functions as a neurotransmitter and local regulator; when oxygen levels in the blood fall, this is released to activate an enzyme that will relax the smooth muscle cells, causing vasodilatation and improving blood flow to the tissues; it is highly reactive and can be toxic, so it quickly triggers the change in the target cell and breaks down |
| Prostagandins | A group of local regulators that are modified fatty acids; they were first found int he secretions of the prostates; they are released by the prostate and signal smooth muscles in the uterine wall to contract; from the placenta, they also signal the uterine wall; in the immune system they promote fever, inflation, and heightened pain; they also regulate aggregation of blood platelets and maintain the lining of the stomach |
| Pancreas | A gland located behind the stomach; it releases a bicarbonate solution in to the duodenum (upper part of the small intestine) |
| Oxytocin | A neurohormone released by the posterior pituitary |
| Negative feedback | A look that reduces the initial stimulus |
| Positive feedback | A loop that reinforces a stimulus, leading to a greater response |
| Insulin | Produced by the pancreas's beta cells, it triggers the uptake of glucose from the blood into the body cells; this is realized when glucose levels rise too much |
| Glucagon | Produced by the pancreas's alpha cells, this triggers the breakdown of the glycogen in the liver and thus increases the blood glucose levels |
| Diabetes Mellitus | A disease caused by a deficiency of insulin or decreased response from target tissues; cells are unable to take up enough glucose for their metabolisms; blood glucose levels rise and glucose is present in the urine |
| Type 1 Diabetes | Insulin dependent form of the autoimmune disease in with the body destroys the pan crease's beta cells and the individual is unable to produce insulin; usually appear in childhood |
| Type 2 Diabetes | Non-Insulin Dependent form of the autoimmune disease in which the body's target cells fail to respond to insulin |
| Hypothalamus | An endocrine gland located int the brain that receives information from neurons and initiates endocrine sigaling |
| Pituitary Gland | A gland located at the base of the hypothalamus that is roughly the side and shape of a lima bean |
| Posterior pituitary | An extension of the hypothalamus into which hypothalamic axons reach and release neurohormones produced in the hypothalamus |
| Anterior pituitary | An endocrine gland that synthesizes and secretes hormones in response to signals from the hypothalamus |
| Tropic hormones | Hormones that regulate the function of other endocrine cells or glands |
| ADH | Hormone produced by the anterior pituitary that regulates physiology and behavior and increases water retention in the kidneys (maintains blood osmolarity) |
| Prolactin | Hormone that stimulates milk production |
| Thyroid | An organ made of 2 lobes attached to he central side of the trachea; its hormone increases metabolic rates |
| T3 (Triiodoththyronine) | Three iodine atoms |
| Thyroxine (T4) | 4 iodine atoms; often converted into T3 |
| Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH) | An anterior pituitary hormone that regulates skin color |
| FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) | A hormone that stimulate the production of eggs and sperm |
| LH (Luteinizing Hormone) | A hormone that stimulates ovulation in females and androgen production in males (i.e. testosterone) |
| ADCTH (Adrenocorticotoropic Hormone | A hormone produced an secreted by ted anterior pituitary that stimulates the production and secretion of steroid hormones by the adrenal cortex |
| Growth Hormone | A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that stimulates growth through tropic and non tropic means; the liver realizes insulin like growth factors in response to this |
| Parathyroid Glands | A set of 4 Structures attached to the thyroid's posterior surface; they keep the Ca2+ constant |
| Parathyroid hormone | A hormone that is released if the blood's calcium levels fall' it causes increased Ca+ reabsorption in the kidneys, the breakdown of the bone's matrix, and the activation of vitamin D to increase absorption of Ca+ from food |
| Calcitonin | A hormone released by the thyroid to inhibit bone reabsorption and to increase Ca+ release by kidney |
| Adrenal glands | Glands that are located above the kidneys; made up of the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla |
| Norepinephrine (noadrenaline) | Hormone that causes the fight or flight response; this is produced in the adrenal medulla |
| Catecholamines | A class of hormones made from the amino acid tyrosine |
| Corticosteriods | A family of steroids produced and secreted by the adrenal cortex |
| Glucocorticoids | Steroids that have a primary effect on glucose metabolism' they promote glucose synthesis from non-Carbohydrate sources; when they're present at abnormally high levels, they suppress the immune system |
| Mineralocorticoids | Steroids that have effects on mineral metabolism; their primary purpose is to maintain salt and water balance |
| Androgens | The most important of the 3 types of steroid hormones produced by the gonads (i.e. testosterone) |
| Testosterone | The main androgen; it is responsible for the development of primary and secondary male sex characteristics |
| Estrogens | Steroid hormone responsible for the maintenance of the female reproductive system and the dev. of secondary and primary sex characteristics |
| Progestins | Hormones involved in preparing and maintaining tissues of the uterus that will be used to support the dev. of a fetus |
| Estradiol | The main estrogen |
| Pineal gland | A small mass of tissue near the center of the mammalian brain; the primary source of melatonin |
| Melatonin | A hormone that is modified amino acid; it regulates functions related to light and day length; it affects skin pigmentation and biorhythms and is controlled by the SCN |
| Sexual reproduction | The fusion of haploid gametes to from a diploid cell |
| Zygote | The diploid cell resulting from the fusion of the haploid gametes |
| Egg | The female gamete |
| Sperm | The male gamete |
| Asexual reproduction | The production of new individuals without the fusion of egg and sperm; usually relies on mitotic division |
| Fission | The splitting of parent organism into 2 new individuals of fairly equal size |
| Budding | The formation of new individuals from the outgrowth of older ones (common among invertebrates) |
| Fragmentation/regeneration | Where the body is broken into several pieces and each part regrows a complete body (i.e. starfish) |
| Parthenogenesis | Asexual reproduction in which an egg developed without fertilization, the offspring may be either diploid or haploid |
| Ovulation | The release of mature eggs halfway through the reproductive cycle |
| Hermaphroditism | When an individual has both male and female reproductive systems |
| Fertilization | The union of spam and egg that can be external or internal |
| External fertilization | WHere the female releases its eggs into the environment and the male then fertilizes them, a moist environment is needed to keep the cells from drying out and to let the sperm swim to the eggs |
| Internal fertilization | Where sperm are in or near the female reproductive tract, fertilization is in the tract |
| Gonads | The organs that usually produce and animal's gametes |
| Spermathecae | Often female insects have these sacs which can store sperm for extended periods |
| Cloaca | For non-mammalian vertebrates, it is a common opening for the excretory, digestive, and reproductive tracts |
| Follicles | Made up of a partially developed egg and a group of support cells, there are many of these packed into the outer ovary |
| Oocyte | Partially developed egg |
| Corpus luteum | "Yellow Body", it is a mass of follicular tissue that continues to grow after ovulation, it releases estradiol and progesterone which maintain the uterine lining |
| Oviduct | Fallopian tube, this extends from the ovary to uterus and is line with cilia |
| Uterus | Womb, it is a thick muscular organ that expands to fit a fetus |
| Endometrium | The inner lining of the uterus, ti has a lot of blood vessels |
| Cervix | The neck of the uterus, it opens into the vagina |
| Vagina | A muscular chamber that is the site of insertion fro the pens and deposition of sperm, it opens out to the vulva |
| Vulva | External female genitalia |
| Labia Majora | A pair of thick fatty ridges that protect the rest of the vulva |
| Labia minora | Two thinner skin folds that border the openings to the vagina |
| Hymen | A thin piece of tissue that partially covers the vaginal opening until vigorous activity ruptures it |
| Clitoris | Erectile tissue that is on tope of the labia minor, it support a round glans |
| Glans | A rounded head which is at the end of the clitoris or penis, it is covered by the prepice |
| Prepuse | The skin the covers the clitoris or penis |
| Mammary glands | Glands that are not part of the reproductive system, but instead produce milk in females |
| Seminiferous Tubules | Highly coiled tubules in the testes where sperm develop |
| Leydig cells | Cells that are in the connective tissues between the tubules, they produce testosterone and androgens |
| Scrotum | A fold of the body wall that keeps testes around 2 degrees C cooler than the rest of the body |
| Epididymus | The coiled ducts on the tope of thestes |
| Ejaculation | Where sperm are forced through the epidermis and vas deferens |
| Vas deferens | A muscular duct that extends behind the urinary bladder and joints the duct from the seminal vesicle |
| Ejaculatory duct | The tube where seminal vesicle and vas deferens merge, it leads to the urethra |
| Urethral | The outlet tube for both excretory and reproductive system |
| Seminal vesicles | These contribute around 60% of semen's volume in mucus, fructose, a coagulating enzyme, ascorbic acid, and prostaglandins |
| Prostate gland | Gland that secretes a thin milky liquid containing anticoagulant enzymes and citrate |
| Bulborethral glands (Cowpers glands) | A pair of small glands below the prostate, they release mucus to neutralize the acidity of the remaining urine |
| Penis | Made up of the urethra, and three layers of spongy erectile tissue |
| Baculum | A bone in the penis of a few mammals that further stiffens the penis for mating |
| Gametogensis | The proaction of gametes |
| Spermogenesis | The formation and development of sperm that takes about 7 weeks; where all 4 products of meiosis dev. into mature sperm in a continuous sequence; produces in continuous sequence though out adolescence and adulthood |
| Oogenesis | The development of mature oocytes; Cytokinesis is uneven, and most of the cytoplasm ends up in a single viable daughter cell; mitotic divisions competed before birth and mature gametes stop being produced around age 50; has long interruptions |
| Spermatogonia | A germ cell, an early form in the dev. of sperm |
| Acrosome | A vesicle in the head of a sperm cell that contains enzymes the help penetrate the egg |
| Oogonia | A germ cell, an early form of an egg |
| Primary oocytes | Developmentally arrested oocytes in prophase one, each one is in its own follicle |
| Secondary Oocytes | The oocyte is arrested at meiosis II when it is real eased at ovulation, it only continues to develop if its fertilized |
| Menstruation | The cycling shedding of the blood-rich endometrium front he uterus which occurs in a flow though the cervix and vagina |
| Menstrual/uterine cycle | Lasts around 28 days, build up and sloughing off uterine lining |
| Ovarian cycle | The cyclic events in the ovaries, follicle growth and ovulation |
| Follicular phase | The stage in the menstrual cycle where follicle growth and oocyte maturation occur in response to FSH and LH, there is also a steady rise in estradiol |
| Luteal Phase | The stage in menstrual cycle where LH stimulates the formation of the remaining follicular tissue into the corpusluteum which secretes progesterone and estradiol towards the end low gonadotroping levels stimulate a drop in estradiol and progesterone |
| Proliferative stage | The endometrium thickens in response to the estradiol secreted by the maturing follicles |
| Secretory phase | Progesterone is secreted by the corpus lueteum and matins the uterine lining, enlarges the arteries, and grows endometrial glands (which secrete nutrient rich fluid for the embryos) |
| Menstrual flow phase | THe shedding of the uterine lining by the constriction of arteries with blocks blood flood to the endometrial tissues and fluids , the first day of this is called day 1 of the cycle |
| Endometriosis | A disorder in which cells from the uterine lining move to an abdominal location that is abnormal where they respond to hormones in the blood stream, these tissues swell and break down each cycle which causes pain and abdominal bleeding |
| Ectopic | Out of place |
| Menopause | After about 500 Cycles, a woman will stop ovulating and menstruating, the ovaries will respond less to FSH and LH, and will produce less estradiol |
| Estrous cycles | In the absence of pregnancy an animal will reabsorb the endometrium will little fluid loss |
| Inhibin | A hormone in males produced by their sertoli cells, it reduces FSH secretion |
| Vasocongestion | The filling of tissue with blood |
| Myotonia | Increased muscle tension |
| Coitus | Sexual intercourse |
| Orgasm | The rhythmic and involuntary contractions of the reproductive structures |
| Conception | Fertilization or the fusion of egg and sperm in the oviduct |
| Clevage | The process by which the zygote begins to divide around 24 hours after fertilization |
| Blastocyst | A hollow ball of cells that is formed around 5 days after fertilization |
| Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) | A hormone released by the blastocyst that maintains progesterone and estrogen in the first few months of pregnancy |
| Pregnancy | The condition of carrying one or more embryos in the uterus |
| Trimesters | Human gestation is divided into 3 of these of about 3 months |
| Trophoblast | The outer layer of the blastocyst grows outward and forms the Placenta |
| Placenta | A disc shaped organ that is about 2.2 lbs and contains maternal and fetal blood vessels; it moves nutrients, gasses, and wastes between the 2 organisms and provides immune protection for the embryo |
| Organogenesis | The dev. of body organs that takes place in the 1st trimester |
| Fetus | Around 8 weeks into pregnancy all the main structures are present in very basic forms |
| Second Trimester | HCG levels decline and the corpus luteum disintegrates, the placenta begins to produce the progesterone |
| Labor | A series of strong uterine contractions that push the fetus and placenta out of the body, once labor begins it is controlled by prostaglandins and estradiol and oxytocin |
| Lactation | The production of mother's milk |
| Rhythm method | Temporary abstinence, no intercourse during time seen conception is likely |
| Birth-control pills | Hormonal contraceptives that contain estrogen and progesterone |
| Tubal ligation | The tying off of a section of each oviduct to prevent eggs from traveling to the uterus |
| Vasectomy | The cutting or tying off of each of the vas deferens to prevent sperm from entering the urethra |
| Assisted reproductive technology | Procedures that involve the surgical removal of eggs, fertilization of the eggs, and the retiring of the embryo to the woman's body |
| IVF | Mixing sperm and eggs in culture dishes and incubating them until they are 8 cells large at which point they are implanted into a female |
| Intracytoplasmic sperm injection | IVF in which the head of a seem is injected directly into the egg |
| Model organisms | Species chosen for their ability to be studiod in a lab environment |
| Acrosomal reaction | The discharge of hydrolytic enzymes from the sperm head that is triggered by the molecules in the jelly coating of the egg |
| Fast block to polyspermy | WHen the egg is depolarized by a rush of Na+ into the cell that prevent more sperm from fusing with the egg |
| Slow block to polyspermy | When enzymes but off receptor protons and remove the jelly like layer, leaving the egg surrounded by a hard fertilization envelope which contains high levels of Ca2+ |
| Zonapellucida | The extracellular matrix of the cell |
| Cleavage | Rapid cell divisions in the early stages of development |
| Blastomeres | The small cells formed during cleavage, the cells don't grow between mitosis so they have little cytoplasm |
| Blastula | Hollow ball of cells |
| Blastocoel | The fluid filled cavity in a blastula |
| Vegetal pole | The end of the egg where the yolk is concentrated |
| Animal Pole | The end of the egg opposite to the vegetal pole |
| Holoblastic | Where the cleavage furrow still goes all the way through the blastula |
| Meroblastic | WHere there is so much yolk that the cleavage furrow can only go through the area where the yolk isn't (concentrated to one part = animal pole) |
| Morphgenesis | The cellular and tissue based process by which an organism's body takes shape |
| Gastrulation | A set of cells at or near the surface move towards the interior, cell layers are established, and a digestive tube is formed |
| Organogenesis | The formation of organs |
| Gastrula | 2 or 3 layered ball of cells |
| Ectoderm | The forms the outer layer; epidermis of skin, nervous system and sensory systems, sweat and pituitary gland, adrenal medulla, jaws and teeth, germ cells |
| Endoderm | This forms the inner layer; lining of digestive tract (and liver and pancreas)l lining of the respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts; thymus, thyroid, and parathyroid glands |
| Mesoderm | This forms the middle layer, but is not always present; formed by the dorsal lip; skeletal and muscular systems; circulatory and lymphatic systems, excretory and reproductive systems (not germ cells); dermis of skin, adrenal cortex |
| Archenteron | A deep, dead-end tube that is indented into the blastula |
| Blastopore | THe open end of the archenteron that will become either the mouth or the anus |
| dorsal lip | The dorsal side (upper side) of the blastopore |
| Primitive streak | The piling of cells moving towards the embryo's midline and eventually causing a thickening at the center |
| Blastocyst | The mammalian blastula |
| Inner cell mass | A group of cells bunched at one end of the blastocyst cavity |
| Trophoblast | The outer epithelium of the blastocyst, it doesn't become part of the embryo, it supports its growth by breaking downy he endometrium's wall for implantation |
| Extraembryonic membranes | 4 membranes that are formed by the embroy that enclose structures external to the embryo |
| Amniotes | Mammals and reptiles are considered this because the embyo is surrounded by fluid that is contained within the amnion, one of the 4 extra embryonic membranes |
| Notochord | The mesoderm rod that extends along the dorsal side of the chordate embryo |
| Neural tube | What will become the brain and spinal chord in the embryo is a tube that forms by the folding up of the neural plate |
| Neural crest | A band of cells that dev. where the neural tube pinches off of the ectoderm, these cells move and form teeth, bones, and peripheral nerves |
| Somites | Blocks of mesoderm tissues to the right and left of the notochord |
| Convergent extension | Rearrangement of cells of a tissue layer causing the sheet to become narrower as it becomes longer |
| Apoptosis | Programmed cell death, is is common feature of animal dev. |
| Determination | The process by which a cell/group of cell's fate is determined |
| Pattern formation | The dev. of spatial organization (proximal/distal, ventral/dorsal, anterior/posterior) |
| Positional info | The molecular cues that control pattern formation |
| Apical ectodermal ridge AER | A thickened area of the ectoderm at the tip of a limb bud, the cells in this area secrete fibroblast growth factors that promote outgrowth of a limb |
| Zone of polarizing activity ZPA | A section of mesodermal tissue that is beneath the ectoderm where the posterior side of the bud is attached, it si necessary for proper pattern formation, cells nearest to it become posterior structures and cells further away become anterior structures, these cells secrete a growth factor called Sonic Hedgehog |
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