Chapter 40: An Introduction to Animal Structure and Function
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119 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 bioenergetics | -a theme throughout our comparative study of animals -how organisms obtain, process, and use their energy resources -flow of energy through an animal |
| anatomy | the study of the structure of an organism |
| physiology | the study of the functions an organism performs |
| tissues | -groups of cells with a common structure and function -term is derived from a Latin term meaning "weave" -different types have different structures especially fitted to their functions -may be held together by extracellular matrix that coats the cells or weaves them together in a fabric of fibers |
| epithelial tissue, connective tissue, nervous tissue, and muscle tissue | four main categories of tissues |
| epithelial tissue | -occurs in sheets of tightly packed cells -covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities within the body -has closely joined cells, with little material between them |
| tight junctions | In many epithelia, the cells are held together by ____ ______, and this tight packing enables the epithelium to function as a barrier protecting against mechanical injury, invasive microorganisms, and fluid loss. |
| basement membrane | The free surface of the epithelium is exposed to air or fluid, whereas the cells at the base of the barrier are attached to a ______ ______, a dense mat of extracellular matrix. |
| number of cell layers and the shape of the cells on the free surface | two criteria for classifying epithelia |
| A simple epithelium has a single layer of cells, whereas a stratified epithelium has multiple tiers of cells. | What is the difference between simple and stratified epithelia? |
| cuboidal, columnar, or squamous | What are the different cell shapes that can be at the free surface of an epithelium? (hint: dice, bricks on end, and flat like floor tiles) |
| glandular epithelia | -as well as protecting the organs they line, this type of epithelia absorb or secrete chemical solutions -ex. found in tubules in the thyroid gland to secrete a hormone that regulates the body's rate of fuel consumption |
| mucous membrane | -formed by the glandular epithelia that line the lumen (cavity) of the digestive and respiratory tracts -secretes a slimy solution that lubricates the surface and keeps it moist -the free surfaces of this can have beating cilia that move the film of mucus along the surface (ex. ciliated epithelium of our respiratory tubes helps keep our lungs clean by trapping dust and other particles and sweeping them back up the trachea (windpipe)) |
| columnar epithelia | (type of epithelia) -having cells with relatively large cytoplasmic volumes -often located where secretion or the active absorption of substances is an important function -ex. pseudostratified ciliated version of this line the nasal passages of many vertebrates |
| cuboidal cells | (type of epithelia) -specialized for secretion -make up the epithelia of kidney tubules and many glands, including the thyroid gland and salivary glands |
| stratified columnar epithelia | (type of epithelia) -line the inner surface of the urethra, the tube through which urine exits the body |
| stratified squamous epithelia | (type of epithelia) -regenerate rapidly by cell division near the basement membrane -new cells are pushed to the free surface as replacements for cells that are continually sloughed off -commonly found on surfaces subject to abrasion, such as the outer skin and linings of the esophagus, anus, and vagina |
| simple squamous epithelia | (type of epithelia) -thin and leaky -function in the exchange of material by diffusion -line blood vessels and the air sacs of the lungs |
| simple columnar epithelia | (type of epithelia) -line the intestines -secrete digestive juices and absorb nutrients |
| connective tissue | -functions mainly to bind and support other tissue -unlike tightly packed epithelia, these tissues have a sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix |
| extracellular matrix | -generally consists of a web of fibers embedded in a uniform foundation that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid -in most cases, its substances are secreted by cells of the connective tissue |
| collagenous fibers, elastic fibers, and reticulous fibers | three kinds of connective tissue fibers, made of protein |
| collagenous fibers | -connective tissue fibers made of collagen -are nonelastic and do not tear easily when pulled lengthwise (pinch and pull some skin on back of your hand--mainly collagen keeps the flash from tearing away from the bone) |
| collagen | probably the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom |
| elastic fibers | -connective tissue fibers that are long threads made of a protein called elastin -provide a rubbery quality that complements the nonelastic strength of collagenous fibers (pinch the back of your hand and let go, and these fibers quickly restore you skin to its original shape) |
| reticular fibers | -very thin and branched connective tissue fiber -composed of collagen and continuous with collagen fibers, these form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues |
| loose connective tissue, fibrous connective tissue, adipose tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood | major types of connective tissue, each with a structure correlated with its specialized functions |
| loose connective tissue | -most widespread connective tissue in the vertebrate body -bind epithelia to underlying tissues and functions as a packing material, holding organs in place -gets its name from the loose weave of its fibers -has all three fiber types (collageous, elastic, and reticular) |
| fibroblasts and macrophages | two predominant types of cells scattered in the fibrous mesh of loose connective tissue |
| fibroblasts | -secrete the protein ingredients of the extracellular fibers -one of the predominant types of cells scattered in the fibrous mesh of loose connective tissue |
| macrophages | -amoeboid cells that roam the maze of fibers of loose connective tissue -engulf bacteria and debris of dead cells by phagocytosis |
| adipose tissue | -specialized form of loose connective tissue -stores fat in adipose cells distributed throughout its matrix -pads and insulates the body the body -stores fuel as fat molecules |
| adipose cell | -found in the matrix of adipose tissue -contains a large fat droplet that swells when fat is stored and shrinks when the body uses fat as fuel |
| fibrous connective tissue | -dense type of connective tissue (due to large numbers of collagenous fibers) -its fibers are organized into parallel bundles, an arrangement that maximizes nonelastic strength -type of connective tissue found in tendons and ligaments |
| tendons | attach muscles to bones |
| ligaments | join bones together at joints |
| cartilage | -has an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix made of a substance called chondroitin sulfate, a protein-carbohydrate complex, making it somewhat flexible support material -makes up the skeleton of a shark -many vertebrates have skeletons made of this during the embryo stage, but it is later replaced by bones -we retain it as flexible support in certain locations, like the nose, the ears, the rings that reinforce our windpipe, the discs that act as cushions between our vertebrae, and the caps on the ends of some bones |
| chondrocytes | chondroitin sulfate (a protein-carbohydrate complex) and collagen are secreted by cells called _____. |
| chondroitin sulfate | protein-carbohydrate complex that makes up the rubbery matrix of cartilage, allowing for (in its composite with collagenous fibers) cartilage's strong yet somewhat flexible support |
| bone | -a mineralized connective tissue -what the skeleton supporting the body of most vertebrates is made of |
| osteoblasts | -bone-forming cells which deposit matrix of collagen |
| hydroxyapatite | -calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions combine and harden within the matrix (of collagen, deposited by osteoblasts) into this mineral |
| hard mineral and flexible collagen | -this combination makes bones harder than cartilage without being brittle |
| osteons | -microscopic structure of hard mammalian bone consists of these repeating units -each has concentric layers of the mineralized matrix, which are deposited around a central canal containing blood vessels and nerves that service the bone |
| osteocytes | what osteoblasts are called when they become trapped in their own secretions |
| blood, plasma | -functions differently from other connective tissue but does meet the criterion of having an extensive extracellular matrix -its matrix is a liquid called _____, made of water, salts, and a variety of dissolved proteins |
| erythrocytes and leukocytes | two classes of blood cells suspended in the plasma |
| platelets | -cell fragments suspended in the plasma -aid in blood clotting |
| nervous tissue | -senses stimuli and transmits signals from one part of the animal to the other -its functional unit is the neuron |
| neuron | -nerve cell -functional unit of nervous tissue -is uniquely specialized to transmit signals called nerve impulses -consists of a cell body and two or more extensions, or processes, called dendrites and axons, which may be as long as a meter in humans |
| dendrites | -transmit impulses from their tips toward the rest of the neuron |
| axons | -transmit impulses toward another neuron or toward an effector |
| effector | -a structure such as a muscle cell that carries out a body response |
| muscle fibers | -long cells that are capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses |
| actin and myosin | contractile proteins that make up myofibrils |
| myofibrils | arranged in parallel within the cytoplasm of muscle fibers are large number of these |
| muscle tissue | -composed of muscle fibers -the most abundant tissue -in most animals, its contraction accounts for much of the energy-consuming cellular work in an active animal |
| skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle | three types of muscle tissue in the vertebrate body |
| skeletal muscle | -attached to bones by tendons -responsible for the voluntary movements of the body -also called striated muscle because the arrangement of overlapping filaments gives the cells a striped (striated) appearance under the microscope |
| No, they simply enlarge those already present | Do adults increase their number of muscle cells through weight lifting and other methods of building muscle? |
| fibers, myofibrils, sarcomeres | Skeletal (striated) muscle consists of bundles of long cells called ____; each of which is a bundle of strands called _____. The stripes (striations) are due to the arrangement of contractile unites, or ________, along the length of the fibers. |
| cardiac muscle | -forms the contractile wall of the heart -striated like the skeletal muscle, but its cells are branched -the ends of its cells are joined by structures called intercalated discs, which relay signals from cell to cell during a heartbeat |
| contractile, intercalated discs | Cardiac muscle, also striated, has _______ properties similar to those of skeletal muscle. Unlike skeletal muscle, however, cardiac muscle fibers branch and interconnect via ________ _____, which help synchronize the heartbeat. |
| smooth muscle | -named because it lacks striations -found in the walls of the digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries, and other internal organs -has spindle-shaped cells, which contract more slowly than skeletal muscles but can remain contracted longer -controlled by different kinds of nerves than those controlling skeletal muscles, these are responsible for involuntary body activities, such as churning of the stomach or constriction of arteries |
| organs | -in all but the simplest animals (sponges and some cnidarians), different tissues are organized into these -some of these are tissues arranged in layers (ex. stomach has four main tissue layers) |
| mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa | four main tissue layers of the stomach wall (epithelial, connective, smooth, connective/epithelial) |
| mesentaries | -sheets of connective tissue in body cavities moistened or filled with fluid -suspend many of the organs of vertebrates |
| organ systems | -a level of organization higher than organs -carry out the major body functions of most animals -consist of several organs and have specialized functions, all of their efforts must be coordinated for the animal to survive |
| physical requirements | constrain what natural selection can "invent," including the size of single cells |
| surface-to-volume relations | An amoeba the size of a human could never move materials across its membrane fast enough to satisfy such a large blob of cytoplasm. This is just one example of how physical law--in this case, the math of _____-to-_____ relations--affects the evolution of an organisms form. |
| laws of hydrodynamics | constrain the shapes that are possible for aquatic animals that swim very fast |
| fusiform shape | -basic body shape for fast-swimming aquatic animals -means tapered on both ends |
| thousand, universal, convergent evolution, environmental | Water is about a _______ times denser than air, and thus the slightest bump that causes a drag impedes a swimmer even more than it does a runner or a flyer. We should expect speedy fishes and marine mammals to have similar shapes, because the laws of hydrodynamics are _______. This is an example of _______ ________, which occurs because natural selection shapes similar adaptations when diverse organisms face the same ___________ challenge, such as the resistance of water to fast travel. |
| aqueous medium | As a requirement for maintaining the fluid integrity of the plasma membranes of its cells, an animal body must be arranged so that all of its living cells are bathed in an ______ _______, with which exchange with the environment occurs as dissolved substances diffuse and are transported from this to across the plasma membranes. |
| hydra, tapeworm | Two-layered sacs and flat shapes are designs that put a large surface area in contact with the environment, but these simple forms do not allow much complexity in internal organization. Name an example of a two-layered sac organism with a gastrovascular cavity, and one with a flat shape which bathes its cells in its host's intestinal fluid. |
| branched, circulatory system, exchange | Most animals are more complex and made up of compact masses of cells; their outer surfaces are relatively small compared with their volume. Whales and most other mammals have extensively folded or _______ internal surfaces specialized for exchange with the environment. The ________ _______ shuttles materials among all the _________ surfaces within the animal. |
| size, shape | An animal's ____ and _____ have a direct effect on how the animal exchanges energy and materials with its surroundings. |
| Claude Bernard | -French physiologist -made distinction between the external environment surrounding an animal and the internal environment in which the cells of the animal actually live -recognized that many animals tend to maintain relatively constant conditions in their internal environment, even when the external environment changes |
| interstitial fluid | -internal environment of vertebrates -fluid which fills the spaces between our cells, exchanges nutrients and wastes with blood contained in capillaries |
| 37 degrees Celsius | A pond-dwelling hydra is powerless to affect the temperature of the fluid that bathes its cells, but the human body can maintain its "internal pond" at a more-or-less constant temperature of what? |
| tenth, 7.4 | Our bodies can also control the pH of our blood and interstitial fluid to within a _____ of a pH unit of ____. |
| 0.1% | Our bodies can regulate the amount of sugar in our blood so that it does not fluctuate for long from a concentration of ___. |
| puberty, pregnancy | There are times, of course, during the development of an animal when major changes in the internal environment are programmed to occur. For example, the balance of hormones in human blood is altered radically during ______ and _______. Still, the stability of the internal environment is remarkable. |
| homeostasis | -concept incorporating Bernard's "constant internal milieu" -means "steady state" or internal balance |
| dynamic, mechanisms | Homeostasis is a ______ state, an interplay between outside forces that tend to change the internal environment and internal control _________ that oppose such changes. |
| receptor, control center, and an effector | three functional components of any homeostatic control system |
| receptor | part of homeostatic control system that detects a change in some variable of the animal's internal environment |
| control center | part of homeostatic control system that processes information it receives from the receptor and directs an appropriate response |
| effector | part of the homeostatic control system that carries out the appropriate response |
| negative feedback | -mechanism type in which a change in the variable being monitored triggers the control mechanism to counteract further change in the same mechanism -prevents small changes from becoming too large -principle behind most homeostatic mechanisms, such as regulation of body temperature in humans -goal to maintain a STEADY STATE |
| positive feedback | -involves a change in smoe variable that triggers mechanisms that amplify rather than reverse the change -example: heightened contractions during childbirth to bring childbirth to COMPLETION -mechanisms to reach an endpoint |
| expensive | Internal regulation is _______. Animals use a considerable portion of the energy from the food they eat to maintain favorable internal conditions. Animals must manage their energy resources not only for homeostasis, but for everything else they do, including movement, defense against disease, and reproduction. |
| enzymatic hydrolysis, ATP, catabolic, work, surroundings | Food is digested by ______ ________, and energy-containing fuel molecules are absorbed by body cells. Once absorbed, fuel molecules have several possible fates. Most are used to generate ____ by the _______ processes of cellular respiration and fermentation. The chemical energy of ATP powers cellular _____, enabling cells, ogans, and organ systems to peform the many functions that keep an animal alive. Since the production and use of ATP generates heat, an animal must continuously lose heat to its __________. |
| biosynthesis | -what remaining food molecules can be used for (after the energetic needs of staying alive are met) -includes body growth and repair, synthesis of storage material such as fat, and production of reproductive structures, including gametes -some of its products can be broken down into fuel molecules for production of additional ATP, depending on the needs of the animal |
| carbon skeletons, ATP | Biosynthesis requires both _____ _______ for new structures and ___ to poewr their assembly. |
| food, adaptations, consumer, chemical | The flow of energy through an animal--the animal's bioenergetics--ultimately sets the limits to the animal's behavior, growth, and reproduction and determines how much ____ it needs. An understanding of bioenergetics tells us a great deal about an animal's _________ and how it fits into its environment as an energy ______. Physiologists answer questions dealing with bioenergetics by measuring the rates at which animals use ______ energy and how these rates change in different circumstances. |
| metabolic rate | -amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time -the sum of all the energy-requiring biochemical reactions occurring over a given time interval |
| calories (cal) or kilocalories (kcal) | Energy is measured in? |
| a kilcalorie or 1,000 calories | What is a Calorie? |
| rate of heat loss, amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced, (over long periods:) rate of food consumption and energy content of the food can be used to estimate (but this method must account for the energy in food that cannot be used by the animal--energy lost in feces and urine) | What can we measure/monitor to determine metabolic rate? |
| Calorimeter | -closed, insulated chamber equipped with a device that records the animal's heat loss -used most often with small animals |
| 4.5-5 kcal and about 9 kcal | What are the approximate amounts of energy obtained per gram of protein or carbohydrate and of fat? |
| endothermic and ectothermic strategies | two basic bioenergetic "strategies" used by animals |
| endothermic | -bioenergetic strategy of most birds and mammals -bodies are warmed by heat generated by metabolism, and body temperature must be maintained at a certain level to sustain life -high-energy strategy that permits intense, long-duration activity over a wide range of environmental temperatures |
| ectothermic | -bioenergetic strategy for most fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates -organisms do not produce enough metabolic heat to have much effect on body temperature, and are genearlly incapable of intense activity over long periods -requires much less energy than is needed by ectotherms |
| size, metabolic, size | The amount of energy it takes to maintain each gram of body weight is inversely related to body ____. In other words, ______ rate per gram is inversely related to body ____ among similar animals. |
| breathing, blood volume, heart, eat, food, mass | The higher metabolic rate of a smaller animal's tissues demands a proportionately greater rate of delivery of oxygen. And correlated with its higher metabolic rate, the smaller animal also has a higher _______ rate, _____ ______ (relative to its size), and _____ rate (pulse), and must ____ much more _____ per unit of body _____. |
| cost, temperature, heat, heat | Our hypothesis is that for endotherms, the smaller the animal, the greater the energy ____ of maintaining a stable body _________. This idea stems from teh surface area to volume relationship: The smaller an animal, the greater its surface area to volume ratio, and thus the greater the loss of _____ to (or gain of _____ from) the surroundings. |
| ectotherms (which do not use metabolic heat to maintain body temperature) | The hypothesis explaining the inverse relationship between metabolic rate and size does not really apply to....? |
| basic functions | Every animal has a range of metabolic rates. Minimal rates power the _____ ________ that support life, such as cell maintenance, breathing, and heartbeat. |
| basal metabolic rate (BMR) | -metabolic rate of a nongrowing endothem at rest, with an empty stomach, and experiencing no stress -averages 1,600 to 1,800 kcal per day for adult males and about 1,300 to 1,500 kcal per day for adult femails (these are about the equivalent to the energy consumption of a 75-watt light bulb) |
| standard metabolic rate (SMR) | -metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, nonstressed ectotherm -must be determined at a specific temperature since body temperature in ectotherms changes with temperature of the surroundings |
| Maximal, peak | Any behavior, even a person working quietly at a desk or an insect extending its wings, consumes energy beyond the BMR or SMR. ______ metabolic rates (the highest rates of ATP utilization) occur during ____ activity, such as lifting heavy weights, all-out running, or high-speed swimming. |
| inversely | In general, an animal's maximum possible metabolic rate is ________ related to the duration of activity. |
| muscle, glycolysis, cellular respiration, 10 | Both an alligator (ectotherm) and a human (endotherm) are capable of very intense exercise in short spurts of a minute or less. During these "sprints," the ATP present in _____ cells and ATP generated anaerobically by ______ can power the activity. Neither the ectotherm nor the endotherm can sustain their maximum metabolic rates and peaks of activity over longer periods of exercise, though the endotherm has an advantage in such endurance tests. Sustained activity depends on the aerobic process of ________ _________ for ATP supply, and an endotherm's respiration is about __ times greater than an ectotherm's. Only endotherms are capable of long-duration activities such as distance running. |
| daylight | Birds, humans, and many insects are usually active (and therefore have their highest metabolic rates) during ______ hours. |
| Age, sex, size, body and environmental temperatures, the quality and quantity of food, activity level, oxygen availability, hormonal balance, and time of day | Between the extremes of BMR and SMR and maximal metabolic rate, many factors influence energy requirements. Name some! |
| 2-4 | For most terrestrial animals (both endotherms and ectotherms), the average daily rate of energy consumption is _-_ times BMR or SMR. Humans in most developed countries have an unusually low average daily metabolic rate of about 1.5 times BMR--an indication of relatively sedentary lifestyles. |
| Ectotherms do not have to expend energy in regulating body temperature. | Two important concepts of bioenergetics: -small animals have much greater energy demands than do larger animals of the same taxonomic class (think: mouse versus elephant) -an ectotherm requires much less energy per kg than does an endotherm of equivalent size....why? |
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