APES REVIEW: "140 WAYS TO GO APE(S)"
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Created by:
hannahlehman on April 16, 2012
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144 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Ionizing radiation | enough energy to dislodge electrons from atoms, forming ions; capable of causing cancer (gamma, X-rays, UV) |
| High Quality Energy | organized & concentrated; can perform useful work (fossil fuel & nuclear) |
| Low Quality Energy | disorganized, dispersed (heat in ocean or air wind, solar) |
| First Law of Thermodynamics | energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be converted from one form to another (Law of Conservation of Energy) |
| Second Law of Thermodynamics | when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy, usually heat |
| Natural radioactive decay | unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha particles, and beta particles |
| Half-life | the time it takes for ½ the mass of a radioisotope to decay |
| Estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe level | approximately 10 half-lives |
| Nuclear Fission | nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons |
| Nuclear Fusion | two isotopes of light elements (H) forced together at high temperatures till they fuse to form a heavier nucleus (He). Process is expensive; break-even point not reached yet |
| Ore | a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine |
| Organic fertilizer | slow-acting & long-lasting because the organic remains need time to be decomposed |
| Best solutions to energy shortage | conservation, increase efficiency, explore alternative energy options |
| Surface mining | cheaper and can remove more minerals; less hazardous to workers |
| Humus | organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms |
| Leaching | removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards |
| Illuviation | deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B horizon) |
| Loam | perfect agricultural soil with optimal portions of sand, silt, clay (40%, 40%, 20%) |
| Conservation | allowing the use of resources in a responsible manner |
| Preservation | setting aside areas and protecting them from human activities |
| Parts of the hydrologic cycle | evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation, precipitation, infiltration |
| Aquifer | any water-bearing layer in the ground |
| Cone of depression | lowering of the water table around a pumping well |
| Salt water intrusion | near the coast, over-pumping of groundwater causes saltwater to move into the aquifer |
| ENSO | El Niño Southern Oscillation, see-sawing of air pressure over the S. Pacific |
| During an El Niño year | trade winds weaken & warm water sloshed back to SA |
| During a non El Niño year | easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the west coast of South America |
| Effects of El Niño | upwelling decreases disrupting food chains; N U.S. has mild winters, SW U.S. has increased rainfall, less Atlantic hurricanes |
| Nitrogen fixing | because atmospheric N2 cannot be used directly by plants it must first be converted into ammonia (NH3) by bacteria (rhizobium) |
| Ammonification | decomposers convert organic waste into ammonia |
| Nitrification | ammonia (NH3) is converted to nitrate ions (NO3) |
| Assimilation | inorganic nitrogen is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids & proteins |
| Denitrification | bacteria convert nitrate (NO3) and nitrite (NO2) back into N2 gas |
| Phosphorus does not circulate as easily as nitrogen because | it does not exist as a gas, but is released by weathering of phosphate (PO4) 3- rocks |
| Sustainability | the ability to meet the current needs of humanity without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs |
| How excess phosphorus is added to aquatic ecosystems | runoff of animal wastes, fertilizer, discharge of sewage |
| Photosynthesis | plants convert atmospheric carbon (CO2) into complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6) |
| Aerobic respiration | O2-consuming producers, consumers & decomposers break down complex organic compounds & convert C back into CO2 |
| Largest reservoirs of C | carbonate (CO3) 2- rocks first, oceans second |
| Biotic and abiotic | living and nonliving components of an ecosystem |
| Producer/Autotroph | photosynthetic or chemosynthetic life |
| Fecal coliform/Enterococcus bacteria | indicator of sewage contamination |
| Energy flow in food webs | only 10% of the usable energy is transferred because usable energy lost as heat (second law); not all biomass is digested and absorbed; predators expend energy to catch prey |
| Chlorine | good= disinfection of water; bad = forms trihalomethanes |
| Primary succession | development of communities in a lifeless area not previously inhabited by life or those in which the soil profile is totally destroyed (lava flows); begins with lichen action |
| Secondary succession | life progresses where soil remains (clear-cut forest, fire) |
| Cogeneration | using waste heat to make electricity |
| Mutualism | symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit |
| Commensalism | symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits & the other is unaffected |
| Parasitism | relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host |
| Biome | large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants & animals |
| Carrying capacity | the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area |
| R strategist | reproduce early in life; many small unprotected offspring |
| K strategist | reproduce late in life; few offspring; care for offspring |
| Positive feedback | when a change in some condition triggers a response that intensifies the changing condition (warmer Earth - snow melts - less sunlight is reflected & more is absorbed, therefore warmer earth) |
| Negative feedback | when a changing in some condition triggers a response that counteracts the changed condition (warmer earth - more ocean evaporation - more stratus clouds - less sunlight reaches the ground - therefore cooler Earth) |
| Malthus | said human population cannot continue to increase exponentially; consequences will be war, famine & disease |
| Doubling time | rule of 70; 70 divided by the percent growth rate |
| Replacement level fertility | the number of children a couple must have to replace themselves (2.1 in developed countries) |
| World Population | ~ 6.7 billion U.S. Population: ~ 305 million |
| Preindustrial stage | (demographic transition) birth & death rates high, population grows slowly, infant mortality high |
| Transitional stage | (demographic transition) death rate lower, better health care, population grows fast |
| Industrial stage | (demographic transition) decline in birth rate, population growth slows |
| Postindustrial stage | (demographic transition) low birth & death rates |
| Age structure diagrams | broad base = rapid growth; narrow base = negative growth; uniform shape = zero growth |
| First, second and third most populated countries | China, India, U.S. |
| Most important thing affecting population growth | low status of women |
| Ways to decrease birth rate | family planning, contraception, economic rewards and penalties |
| Percent water on earth by type | 97.5% seawater, 2.5% freshwater |
| Salinization of soil | in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind |
| Ways to conserve water | agriculture = drip/trickle irrigation; industry = recycling; home = use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures |
| Point vs. non point sources | Point, from specific location such as a pipe. Non-point, from over an area such as runoff |
| BOD | biological oxygen demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials |
| Eutrophication | rapid algal growth caused by an excess of nitrates (NO3) - and phosphates (PO4) 3- in water |
| Hypoxia | when aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the plants, the DO drops & the water cannot support life |
| Minamata disease | (1932-1968, Japan) mental impairments caused by methylmercury (CH3Hg) + poisoning |
| Primary air pollutants | produced by humans & nature (CO,CO2,SOx,NOx, hydrocarbons, particulates) |
| Natural selection | organisms that possess favorable adaptations pass them onto the next generation |
| Particulate matter | Source: burning fossil fuels and diesel exhaust Effect: reduces visibility & respiratory irritation Reduction: filtering, electrostatic precipitators, alternative energy) |
| Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) | Source: auto exhaust Effects: acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog & ozone Equation for acid formation: NO + O2 = NO2 + H2O = HNO3 Reduction: catalytic converter |
| Sulfur oxides (SOx) | Source: coal burning Effects: acid deposition, respiratory irritation, damages plants Equation for acid formation: SO2 + O2 = SO3 + H2O = H2SO4 Reduction: scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel) |
| Carbon oxides (CO and CO2) | Source: auto exhaust, incomplete combustion Effects: CO binds to hemoglobin, reducing blood's ability to carry O2; CO2 contributes to global warming Reduction: catalytic converter, emission testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transit |
| Ozone (O3) | Formation: secondary pollutant, NO2 + uv = NO + O O + O2 = O3, with VOCs (volatile organic compounds) Effects: respiratory irritant, plant damage Reduction: reduce NO and VOC emissions |
| Radon (Rn) | naturally occurring colorless, odorless, radioactive gas, found in some types of soil and rock, can seep into homes and buildings, formed from the decay of uranium (U), causes lung cancer |
| Photochemical smog | formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O*) |
| Acid deposition | caused by sulfuric and nitric acids (H2SO4, HNO3), resulting in lowered pH of surface waters |
| Greenhouse gases | Examples: H2O, CO2, O3, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), methane (CH4). Effect: they trap outgoing infrared (heat) energy, causing Earth to warm |
| Effects of global warming | rising sea level (thermal expansion), extreme weather, drought, famine, extinctions |
| Causes of ozone depletion | CFCs, methyl chloroform or trichloromethane (CHCl3), carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), halon (haloalkanes), methyl bromide (CH3Br)— all of which attack stratospheric ozone |
| Effects of ozone depletion | increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth |
| Love Canal, NY: (1950s +) | chemicals buried in old canal; school and homes built over it; caused birth defects and cancer |
| Main component of municipal solid waste (MSW) | paper; most is landfilled |
| True cost / External costs | harmful environmental side effects that are not reflected in a product's price |
| Sanitary landfill problems and solutions | problem = leachate; solution = liner with collection system problem = methane gas; solution = collect gas and burn problem = volume of garbage; solution = compact and reduce |
| Incineration advantages | volume of waste reduced by 90%, and waste heat can be used |
| Incineration disadvantages | toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxins), scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal (contains heavy metals) |
| Best way to solve waste problem | reduce the amounts of waste at the source |
| Keystone species | species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than others, such as a sea otter, sea stars, grizzly bear, prairie dogs |
| Indicator species | species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being damaged ex. trout |
| Characteristics of endangered species | small range, large territory, or live on an island |
| In natural ecosystems, methods which control 50-90% of pests | predators, diseases, parasites |
| Major insecticide groups (and examples) | chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT); organophosphates (malathion); carbamates (aldicarb) |
| Pesticide pros | saves lives from insect-transmitted disease, increases food supply, increases profits for farmers |
| Pesticide cons | genetic resistance, ecosystem imbalance, pesticide treadmill, persistence, bioaccumulation, biological magnification |
| Natural pest control | better agricultural practices, genetically resistant plants, natural enemies, biopesticides, sex attractants |
| Electricity generation methods | using steam from water boiled by fossils fuels or nuclear reactions; falling water to turn a turbine to power a generator |
| Petroleum formation | microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons |
| Pros of petroleum | relatively cheap, easily transported, high-quality energy |
| Cons of petroleum | reserves will be depleted soon; pollution during drilling, transport and refining; burning makes CO2 |
| Steps in coal formation | peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite |
| Major parts of a nuclear reactor | core, control rods, steam generator, turbine, containment building |
| Two most serious nuclear accidents | Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986) and Three Mile Island, PA (1979) |
| Alternate energy sources | wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells |
| LD50 (LD-50, LD50) | the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals in a test population |
| Mutagen; Teratogen; Carcinogen | (in order) causes hereditary changes through mutations; causes fetus deformities; causes cancer |
| Endangered species | a group of organisms in danger of becoming extinct if the situation is not improved; population numbers have dropped below the critical number of organisms; North spotted owl, Arctic polar bear, many others... |
| Invasive/Alien/Exotic species | non-native species to an area; often thrive and disrupt the ecosystem balance examples : kudzu vine, purple loosestrife, African honeybee ―killer bee‖, water hyacinth, fire ant, zebra mussel |
| The Tragedy of the Commons | (1968 paper by ecologist Garret Hardin) global commons such as atmosphere and oceans are used by all and owned by none |
| Volcano and Earthquake occurrence | at plate boundaries (divergent= spreading, mid-ocean ridges) (convergent= trenches) (transform= sliding, San Andreas) |
| Sources of mercury | burning coal, compact fluorescent bulbs |
| Major source of sulfur | burning coal |
| Threshold dose | the maximum dose that has no measurable effect. |
| Temperature Inversion | - layer of dense, cool air trapped under a layer of warm dense air, pollution in trapped layer may build to harmful levels. Frequent in Los Angeles, California and Mexico City, Mexico |
| Transpiration | process where water is absorbed by plant roots, moves up through plants, passes through pores (stomata) in leaves or other parts, evaporates into atm. as water vapor |
| . Monoculture | cultivation of a single crop, usually in a large area |
| Food | Wheat, rice and corn provide more than ½ of the calories in the food consumed by the world's people. |
| Forest Fires | Types - Surface, Crown, Ground (in order) usually burn only under growth and leaf litter on forest floor;, hot fires, may start on ground but eventually leap from treetop to treetop; go underground, may smolder for days or weeks, difficult to detect and extinguish i.e. peat bogs. |
| Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act | (1977) requires coal strip mines to reclaim the land |
| Madrid Protocol | (1991) Suspension of mineral exploration (mining) for 50 years in Antarctica |
| Safe Drinking Water Act | (SDWA, 1974) set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants in drinking water that may have adverse effects on human health |
| Clean Water Act | (CWA, 1972) set maximum permissible amounts of water pollutants that can be discharged into waterways; aims to make surface waters swimmable and fishable |
| Ocean Dumping Ban Act | (1988) bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge and industrial waste in the ocean |
| Clean Air Act | (CAA, 1970) set emission standards for cars and limits for release of air pollutants |
| Kyoto Protocol | (2005) controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for developed countries |
| Montreal Protocol | (1987) phase-out of ozone depleting substances |
| Resource Conservation & Recovery Act (RCRA) | (1976) controls hazardous waste with a cradle to grave system |
| Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation & Liability Act (CERCLA) | (1980) ―Superfund,‖ designed to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste dump sites |
| Nuclear Waste Policy Act | (1982) U.S. government must develop a high level nuclear waste site (Yucca Mtn) |
| Endangered Species Act | (1973) identifies threatened and endangered species in the U.S., and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations |
| Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) | (1973) lists species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife products |
| Magnuson-Stevens Act | (1976) Management of marine fisheries |
| Food Quality Protection Act | (1996) set pesticide limits in food, & all active and inactive ingredients must be screened for estrogenic/endocrine effects |
| National Environmental Policy Act | (1969) Environmental Impact Statements must be done before any project affecting federal lands can be started |
| Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants | (2004) Seeks to protect human health from the 12 most toxic chemicals (includes 8 chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides / DDT can be used for malaria control) |
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