| Term | Definition |
|---|
| carbohydrates formula | (CH2O)n |
| Aldose | aldehyde compound with multiple hydroxyl groups |
| Ketose | ketone compound with multiple hydroxyl groups |
| 4 examples of carbohydrates | glucose/lactose/starch/glycogen/cellulose |
| haworth projection | ring projection |
| fischer projection | straight chain projection |
| 5 biological functions of carbohydrates | fuel source (important source of energy when oxidized)/energy storage (starch in plants and glycogen in liver and muscle)/structural (DNA and RNA and cells walls of bacteria and plants and chitin in exoskeleton)/intermediates of metabolism/recognition (glycoproteins and glycolipids act as markers for cellular adhesion and blood group determination and cell adhesion and cell migration and immune response and blood clotting) |
| hydrolysis | describes the dissociation of a molecule by reaction with water |
| formula of monosaccharides | Cn H2n On |
| Formula of glucose | C6 H12 O6 |
| Formula of ribose | C5 H10 O5 |
| 2 ways to classify a monosaccharide | # of carbon atoms present in the molecule and whether they contain an aldehyde or a ketone group |
| How do you name a ketose | insert "ul" to the name of the aldose |
| Does a ketose have one less or one more asymmetric C than the aldose? | one LESS asymmetric C than the aldose |
| What do you call a 3 carbon monosaccharide? | a triose |
| What is an asymmetric carbon or a chiral center? | a carbon surrounded by 4 DIFFERENT neighboring atoms |
| What is the relationship between the number of chiral centers and the number of stereoisomers? | n=chiral centers and 2 to the n'th power equals the number of stereoisomers |
| What is stereochemistry? | it is the D or L configuration of the molecule |
| What does D or L refer to? | they refer to the direction of rotation of plane polarized light--d is rotation to the right and l is rotation to the left |
| are most naturally occuring SUGARS d or l configuration? | D configuration |
| what are enantiomers? | isomers that are perfect mirror images of each other but non-superimposable e.g. d and l glyeraldehyde or your left and right hand |
| what are diastereoisomers? | stereoisomers with MORE THAN ONE chiral carbon/NOT mirror images/NON-superimposable |
| What are epimers? | stereoisomers that differ in configuration at a SINGLE ASYMMETRIC (chiral) carbon |
| reaction of an aldehyde or ketone with an alcohol produces what | a hemiacetal (w/aldehyde) and a hemiketone (w/ ketone) |
| What are furanoses? | hemiacetals with 5-membered rings |
| What are pyranoses? | hemiacetals with six membered rings |
| At which carbon is a new asymmetric (chiral) carbon formed when creating a cyclic structure for a) aldehyde and b) ketone? | c-1 (aldehyde) and c-2 (ketone) |
| an aldohexose forms a pyranose ring (c-1 to c5)...what carbon sticks out of the ring? | c-6 |
| an aldopentose forms a furanose ring (c-1 to c-4)...what carbon sticks out of the ring? | c5 |
| a ketohexose form a furanose ring (c2-c5)...what carbon sticks out of the ring? | c1 |
| what does configuration mean? | 3D arrangement of groups around a CHIRAL carbon |
| is a pyranose ring planar? | NO! |
| in what forms can a pyranose ring exist?...and name the most stable form | it can exist as a chair or boat form and the chair form is most stable |
| Given the choices d/l and chair or boat...tell me which pair best fits under CONFORMATION and which pair best fits under CONFIGURATION | d/l (configuration) and chair/boat (conformation) |
| What are anomers? | the NEW isomers formed at the carbonyl carbon (when you went from fischer to haworth projection) |
| In what way do anomers differ? | In the configuration at the anomeric C atom |
| When discussing monosaccharides...name 3 reactions due to carbonyl groups | reducing sugars/reduction to polyols/oxidation to acids |
| when discussing monosaccharides...name 2 reactions due to alcohol groups | esterification/formation of acetals called glycosides |
| give me the percentage of alpha and beta glucose in SOLUTION | 100% alpha |
| give me the percentage of alpha and beta glucose at EQUILIBRIUM | 33% alpha and 66% beta |
| what is mutarotation? | change in optical rotation |
| how do we get alpha and beta forms? | it is based on how plane polarized light rotates the sugar |
| when describing sugar derivatives...an OH replaced with another group yields? | amino sugars |
| when describing sugar derivatives...a C atom oxidized to a carboxyl group yields? | a sugar acid |
| when describing sugar derivatives...an H atom instead of an OH yields? | a deoxy sugar |
| when describing sugar derivatives...phosphorylation of an OH yields? | a sugar phosphate |
| What is the clinical implication of sorbitol build up? | sorbitol build up in the eyes of diabetics is implicated in cataract formation |
| what are sugar acids? | sugar acids are monosaccharides that have had an -0H group oxidized to a carboxyl group |
| Where are amino sugars typically found? | they are found in many structural polysaccharides such as chitin and bacterial cell walls |
| what does phosphorylation do? | it activates the sugar for reaction |
| what can a reducing sugar do? | it has the ability to reduce oxidizing agents |
| what is glycoside formation? | reaction of an anomeric carbon atom with an OH of ANOTHER monosaccharide (alcohol) |
| A glycosidic bond is formed from what type of reaction? | a condensation reaction |
| How many sugar residues make up oligosaccharides? | 2-10 sugar residues |
| What is so special about a reducing end? | it has a FREE anomeric carbon |
| What are disaccharides? | they are 2 monosaccharide units joined by a single glycosidic bond |
| Is maltose a reducing sugar? | Yes! |
| Does maltose exist in both alpha and beta forms? | Yes! |
| Is sucrose a reducing sugar? | No! |
| What are the monomers of lactose? | galactose and glucose |
| In what form (your choices are alpha or beta) must galactose be present? | Beta form |
| Is lactose a reducing sugar? | Yes! |
| What is lactose intolerance? | the absence or deficiency of lactase (HYPOlactasia) |
| Is lactose intolerance an immune disorder? | NO! |
| What is galactosemia? | a high galactose concentration in BLOOD and URINE |
| Enzymatically speaking what is wrong with someone who has galactosemia? | they have a defect in any ONE of three enzymes needed to convert galactose to glucose |
| What is a homopolysaccharide? | a single type of monomer such as cellulose or glucose |
| What is a heteropolysaccharide? | MORE THAN ONE TYPE of monomer--contains two components such as hyaluronic acid |
| Is starch a homopolysaccharide or a heteropolysaccharide of glucose? | a homopolysaccharide |
| What is amylose and in what percentage does it exist in starch? | it is an unbranched polymer of starch and its percentage is (10-30%) |
| What is amylopectin and in what percentage does it exist in starch? | it is a branched polymer of starch and its percentage is (70-90%) |
| Please tell me the glycosidic bond linkage positions in amylose | alpha (1-4) |
| When amylose reacts with iodine what color results...and what is the significance of the color? | a blue color results and it is the basis for the detection test |
| please tell me about the position of the glycosidic bond linkages in amylopectin | the linear chains are alpha (1-4) linkages and the branch points are alpha (1-6) linkages |
| When amylopectin reacts with iodine what color results? | red-violet |
| Is glycogen more or less branched than amylopectin?...and after how many residues does it branch out? | It is more highly branched than amylopectin...after every 8-10 residues it branches out |
| What is the function of glycogen? | it is the storage form of carbohydrates in animals-liver (10% of mass) and muscle (1.5% of mass) |
| please tell me the glycosidic bond linkages of cellulose | beta (1-4) |
| What two things is cellulose resistant to? | acid hydrolysis and digestive enzymes |
| please tell me the glycosidic bond linkages of chitin | beta (1-4) |
| is chitin a heteropolysaccharide or a homopolysaccharide? | a homopolysaccharide |
| what is the monomer of chitin? | n-acetylglucosamine (an amino sugar) |
| is chitin digestible? | No! |
| What is a heteropolysaccharide? | a repeating disaccharide |
| what are the units of heteropolysaccharides composed of? | one unit is an amino sugar and one or both units may contain sulfate or carboxylate groups |
| please tell me a component of the extracellular matrix | glycosaminoglycans |
| what are the monomers of hyaluronic acid? | d-glucuronic acid and n-acetylGLUCOSamine |
| what is the function of hyaluronic acid | lubricant in synovial fluid |
| what are the monomers of chondroitins? | glucoronate and n-actylGALACTOSamine |
| what carbons in chondroitins contain sulfate? | c-4 and/or c-6 contain sulfate (chondroitin sulfates) |
| how would you describe a bacterial cell wall? | linear heteropolysaccharide chains side by side |
| What are peptidoglycans cross-linked by? | short peptide chains |
| What do glycoconjugates do? | they carry out functions OTHER THAN structural and fuel storage |
| What are glycoconjugates? | they are carbohydrates COVALENTLY attached to other molecules |
| When looking at proteoglycans from a mass perspective is it mostly carbs or proteins? | proteoglycans are mainly carbs in terms of mass |
| What is a proteoglycan? | a core protein covalently linked to chains of glycosaminoglycans |
| how is the oligosaccharide in a glycoprotein attached to the protein? | it is attached via a glycosidic bond- o-linked or n-linked |
| please name 3 glycoproteins secreted by eukaryotes | hormones/digestive enzymes/antibodies |
| What are glycolipids? | sites of recognition for carb-binding proteins (lectins) |
| what is one thing you should remember about glycobiology? | SPECIFIC oligosaccharides carry information |
| Guess what? | you are doing a FANTASTIC job!!!! |
| what is the glycosidic linkage of maltose? | alpha (1-4) |
| what is the glycosidic linkage of sucrose? | alpha (1-2) beta |
| what is the glycosidic linkage of lactose? | beta (1-4) alpha |
| what is the glycosidic linkage of hyaluronic acid? | beta (1-3)and beta (1-4) |
| what is the glycosidic linkage of glycogen? | alpha (1-4) and alpha (1-6) |
| what is the glycosidic linkage of chondroitins? | beta (1-3) and beta (1-4) |
| what is the glycosidic linkage of peptidoglycan? | beta (1-4) |
| what is the glycosidic linkage of cellulose? | beta (1-4) |
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