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mineral a naturally occurring, inorganic solid that has a crystal structure and a definite chemical composition metallic mineral Mineral that yields a metal when processed. Example: iron, gold uranium and silver. nonmetallic mineral a mineral that is dull or glassy; used in its natural form. Example: sand, gravel mineral deposit an area in which a particular mineral is concentrated rock solid, cohesive, aggregate of one or more minerals rock cycle sequence of events in which rocks are formed, destroyed, altered, and reformed by geological processes igneous most common rock-type in the earth's crust; solidified from magma, welling up from the earth's interior; basalt is most common intrusive a type of igneous rock that generally contains large crystals and forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth's surface. extrusive fine-grained igneous rock that forms when magma cools quickly at or near Earth's surface metamorphic Rock formed when exposed to extreme heat and pressure; igneous or sedimentary rock that has changed form chemical weathering occurs when chemical reactions dissolve the minerals in rocks or change them into different minerals (oxidation or hydrolysis) mechanical weathering The type of weathering in which rock is physically broken into smaller pieces. sedimentation layer of a rock building up over billions of years sedimentary rock A type of rock that forms when particles from other rocks or the remains of plants and animals are pressed and cemented together (shale, sandstone, conglomerates) open pit type of mining is used primarily to obtain iron and copper, sand, gravel, and stone extraction the process of obtaining something from a mixture or compound by chemical or physical or mechanical means salts compounds made of a metal and nonmetal that are formed when acids and bases react evaporites Mineral deposits formed by evaporating seawater. smelting The process by which ore is melted to separate the useful metal from other elements; releases toxic air pollutants mountain-top removal Type of surface mining that uses explosives, massive shovels, and even larger machinery called draglines to remove the top of a mountain to expose seams of coal underneath a mountain. Compare area strip mining, contour strip mining. tailings Piles of loose rock produced when a mineral such as uranium is mined and processed (extracted and purified from the ore) Mining Act 1872 Governed prospecting and mining of minerals on publicly owned land RCRA 1976; Controls hazardous waste with a cradle to grave system from storage, treatment, transportation to disposal. SMCRA requires that any surface mining be reclaimed (the soil surface must be restored to its original condition) geological time scale A time scale established by geologists that reflects a consistent sequence of historical periods, grouped into four eras: Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. Pangaea supercontinent; large, ancient landmass that was composed of all the continents joined together precambrian Accounts for ninety percent of earth's time, but only cellular organisms lived paleozoic Occurred between 545 mya and 245 mya. Life: trilobites, ammonites, fish, reptiles mesozoic Occurred between 245 mya and 65 mya. Life: dinosaurs cenozoic 65 mya to present. Age of mammals mantle the layer of hot, solid material between Earth's crust and core crust the thin and solid outermost layer of the Earth above the mantle; cool, lightweight, and brittle, composed mostly of oxygen core interior of the earth; composed of a dense, intensely hot mass of metal, mostly iron tectonic plates pieces of the lithosphere that move around on top of the asthenosphere due to convection currents magma molten rock beneath the earth's surface mid-ocean ridge an underwater mountain chain where new ocean floor is formed; divergent subduction the process by which oceanic crust sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench and back into the mantle at a convergent plate boundary trench a deep, narrow valley in the ocean floor asthenosphere The solid, plastic layer of the mantle beneath the lithosphere; made of mantle rock that flows very slowly, which allows tectonic plates to move on top of it lithosphere the solid, outer layer of the earth that consists of the crust and the rigid upper part of the mantle convergent a boundary where earth's tectonic plates move toward each other. This causes a collision or subduction. This will result in the formation of volcanoes and mountain ranges. divergent Boundary created when two plates pull apart from each other, resulting in an opening between the plates where magma rises and cools (creates new crust) transform the boundary between tectonic plates that are sliding past each other horizontally in opposite directions; San Andreas, earthquakes fold when rock layers bend and buckle caused by tectonic movement fault a break in Earth's crust resulting from the displacement of one side with respect to the other where masses of rock slip past each other active volcano One that is erupting or shows signs that it may erupt in the near future. dormant volcano a volcano expected to awaken in the future and become active extinct volcano A volcano that has not erupted for thousands of years and probably will not erupt again. rift volcano a volcano that forms along the edges spreading plates; when it erupts, new ocean floor is formed as magma fills in where the plates have separated subduction volcano occur where plates collide and slide over each other hot spot volcano In the middle of a tectonic plate, magma comes from deep in the Earth's mantle. It is called a magma plume. The plate moves over the hot spot over millions of years (Hawaii, Yellowstone) ring of fire the chain of volcanoes that lines the Pacific Rim earthquake result of vibrations (often due to plate movements) deep in the Earth that release energy epicenter the initial surface location of an earthquake seismograph a measuring instrument for detecting and measuring the intensity and direction and duration of movements of the ground (such as an earthquake) tsunami seismic sea wave that begins over an earthquake focus and can be highly destructive when it crashes on shore low pressure A large swirling mass of rising warm air that condenses and usually brings wet, stormy weather high pressure A large swirling mass of sinking warm air that causes fair/hot weather evaporate to change from a liquid to a gas latent heat Heat energy that is absorbed when water changes to water vapor and stored in the water vapor condense cause a gas or vapor to change into a liquid Hadley cell A system of vertical and horizontal air circulation predominating in tropical and subtropical regions and creating major weather patterns. Air in these cells rises near the equator because of strong solar heating there and falls because of cooling at about 30 degrees latitude ocean conveyor system Warm and cold ocean currents that redistribute heat around the globe. Surface ocean currents result from wind pushing on the ocean surface/Coriolis effect. As water moves, deep water wells up to replace it, creating deeper ocean currents. Differences in water density also drive ocean circulation. gyres huge circular moving current systems that dominate the surfaces of the oceans, formed because continents interrupt the currents' flow; rotates clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere cold front forms when cold air moves under warm air which is less dense and pushes air up (produces thunderstorms heavy rain or snow warm front a front where warm air moves over cold air and brings drizzly rain and then are followed by warm and clear weather adiabatic describing a change in temperature resulting from the cooling of rising air and the warming of sinking air cyclone rapid inward circulation of air masses about a low-pressure center storm surge a "dome" of water that sweeps across the coast where a hurricane lands tornado a localized and violently destructive windstorm occurring over land characterized by a funnel-shaped cloud extending toward the ground downburst A sudden rush of cool air toward ground that can impact with speeds over 70 mph and produce damage similar to that of a tornado. It usually occurs near the leading edge of the storm or may occur in heavy rain. willy willy Australia's term for a cyclone; rotates clockwise ice core time measurement to check pollution as well as global warming and CO2 levels througha from the accumulation of snow and ice over many years that have re-crystallized and have trapped air bubbles from previous time periods Milankovitch cycle Variations in eccentricity, axial tilt, and precession of the Earth's orbit determines climactic patterns on Earth relative humidity the ratio of the amount of water in the air at a give temperature to the maximum amount it could hold at that temperature temperature inversion atmospheric condition in which warm air traps cooler air near the earth's surface frontal lifting if warm and cool air collide, the warm air will be forced up stationary front a front between warm and cold air masses that is moving very slowly or not at all. IPCC (United Nations) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, created in response to global warming, input from hundreds of scientists, provides the definitive scientific statement about global warming CFCs group of halogens from air conditioners and refrigerators that destroy the ozone layer Kyoto Protocol establishes legally binding commitments for the reduction of four greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride), and two groups of gases (hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons) Took place in Rio De Janeiro in 1992 carbon neutral Having a net zero carbon footprint, refers to achieving net zero carbon emissions by balancing a measured amount of carbon released with an equivalent amount sequestered or offset.The carbon neutral concept may be extended to include other greenhouse gases (GHG) measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence -- the impact a GHG has on the atmosphere expressed in the equivalent amount of CO2 carbon management Methods countries are using to reduce their carbon emissions;ways to separate and capture the carbon dioxide produced during the combustion of fossil fuels and then sequester it away from the atmosphere; Carbon trading, carbon offsetting combustion the act or process of burning conservation of matter in any chemical reaction, matter changes form; it is neither created nor destroyed ion a particle that is electrically charged (positive or negative) acid substance that readily gives up hydrogen ions in water; cause environmental damage because H+ ions react readily with living tissues and nonliving substances base substance that readily bonds with H+ ions; also called alkaline substances; can be highly reactive and cause environmental damage pH a value that indicated the acidity or alkalinity of a solution on a scale of 0-14, based on the proportion of H+ ions. organic relating or belonging to the class of chemical compounds having a carbon basis inorganic relating or belonging to the class of compounds not having a carbon basis first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved. It is neither created nor destroyed underneath normal conditions. second law of thermodynamics States that with each successive energy transfer or transformation in a system, less energy is available to do work. entropy (thermodynamics) disorder photosynthesis process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars and starches cellular respiration process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen individual a single organism species group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring population a group of organisms of the same species populating a given area community (ecology) a group of interdependent organisms inhabiting the same region and interacting with each other ecosystem a system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with their physical environment biosphere the regions of the surface and atmosphere of the Earth (or other planet) where living organisms exist biome a major biotic community characterized by the dominant forms of plant life and the prevailing climate producer autotroph; an organism that makes its own food biomass the total mass of living matter in a given unit area productivity the synthesis of new organic material. That done by green plants using solar energy is called primary productivity. trophic level step in the movement of energy through an ecosystem; step in a food chain or food web consumer heterotroph; an organism that obtains energy by feeding on other organisms herbivore plant-eating animal carnivore Meat eater scavenger any animal that feeds on refuse and other decaying organic matter detritivore Consumer organism that feeds on detritus, parts of dead organisms, and cast-off fragments and wastes of living organisms. The two principal types are detritus feeders and decomposers. decomposer organism that breaks down and obtains energy from dead organic matter and returns chemicals to the earth primary consumer consumer that feeds directly on producers secondary consumer consumer that eats primary consumers tertiary consumer a member of the trophic level of an ecosystem consisting of carnivores that eat mainly other carnivores. ecological pyramid diagram that shows the relative amounts of energy or matter within each trophic level in a food chain or food web positive feedback loop Causes a system to change further in the same direction. Example: melting of Arctic sea ice negative feedback loop A feedback loop that causes a system to change in the opposite direction from which it is moving. Example: reproduction --> overgrazing --> less reproduction independent variable the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. Plotted on the x-axis dependent variable the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable. Plotted on the y-axis control group provides a normal standard against which the biologist can compare results of the experimental group mean average median the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it mode the most frequent value of a random variable intrinsic relating to the essential nature of something aesthetic pertaining to beauty; sensitive or responsive to beauty policy plan of action designed to achieve a certain goal regulatory agency executive agency responsible for enforcing laws pertaining to a certain industry, the agency writes guidelines for the industry, such as safety codes, and enforces them through methods such as inspection environmental impact statement Statement required by Federal law from all agencies for any project using Federal funds to assess the potential affect of the new construction or development on the environment. sanctions something that forces obedience with a law or rule globalization The trend toward increased cultural and economic connectedness between people, businesses, and organizations throughout the world. mediation a process in which each side is given the opportunity to explain its side of the dispute and must listen to the other side resilience the ability to recover precautionary principle When a threat is of serious environmental damage, we should not wait for scientific proof before taking action. arbitration settlement of a dispute by a person or panel chosen to listen to both sides and come to a decision UNESCO encourages international peace and universal respect by promoting collaboration among nations. capital any form of wealth available for use in the production of more wealth natural capital goods and services provided by nature human capital the skills and knowledge gained by a worker through education and experience cultural capital The knowledge, experience or connections one has had through the course of their life that enables them to succeed more so than someone with a less experience background; being able to play the violin, speak multiple languages or talk knowledgeably about art resource anything with potential use in creating wealth or giving satisfaction nonrenewable resource resource that cannot be replenished by natural processes renewable resource any natural resource (as wood or solar energy) that can be replenished naturally with the passage of time intangible resource abstract resources, such as open space, beauty, serenity, wisdom, diversity, and satisfaction demand the amount of a product or service that consumers are willing and able to buy at various possible prices supply the amount of a product that would be offered for sale at all possible prices that could prevail in the market. market equilibrium condition of price stability where the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied price elasticity The measure of how responsive both consumers and producers are to price changes external costs Cost of transaction that affect people other than the buyer or seller internal costs cost borne by the utlity itself (fuel, labor, capital) ecological economics account impacts on the environment and attempts to include natural services into the price of a resource tragedy of the commons Title of an Article written Garrett Harden, 1968, said there will always be a struggle because individuals will use up resources that are common even though that's not what they intend. scarcity limited quantities of resources to meet unlimited wants carrying capacity largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support GNP (gross national product) The total value of goods and services, including income received from abroad, produced by the residents of a country within a specific time period, usually one year. GDP (gross domestic product) the total value of goods and services produced within the borders of a country during a specific time period, usually one year. GPI (genuine progress index) A system that measures the sustainability, well-being and quality of life of a country and its people EPI (environmental performance index) evaluates national sustainability and progress in environmental health, air quality, water resources, productive natural resources, biodiversity and habitat, and sustainable energy cost-benefit analysis tries to find the maximum economic efficiency point at which the marginal cost of pollution control equals the marginal benefits market forces the interaction of supply and demand that shapes a market economy emissions trading market-based system that allows polluters to sell or trade emission credits iff they release below the level of pollution they are allowed to emit by law cap and trade The "cap" sets a nationwide limit on emissions, which is lowered over time to reduce the amount of pollutants released into the atmosphere. The "trade" creates a market for carbon allowances, helping companies innovate in order meet, or come in under, their allocated limit. The less they emit, the less they pay, so it is in their economic incentive to pollute less. credit an accounting entry acknowledging income or capital items offset services that compensate for emissions carbon-neutral no net carbon output GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) one of the banking and trading systems that regulates credit, currency, exchange shipping rates, and commodity prices WTO (World Trade Organization) the only international body dealing with the rules of trade between nations IMF (International Monetary Fund) an organization of 186 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world efficiency the ratio of the output to the input of any system consumerism Excessive concern with buying material goods urban relating to or concerned with a city or densely populated area urban agglomeration an urbanized core region that consists of several adjacent cities or megacities and their surrounding developed suburbs megacity a city with 10 million or more residents rural relating to farm areas and life in the country village a small community or group of houses in a rural area, smaller than a town core region regions that dominate trade, control the most advanced technologies, and have high levels of productivity within diversified economics push factor factor, such as unemployment or the lack of freedom of speech, that makes people want to leave their country and move to another one pull factor opportunities for a better life that encourage people to move into an area congestion overcrowding; clogging slum a district of a city marked by poverty and inferior living conditions shanty town a neighborhood in which people live in makeshift shacks sprawl Unrestricted growth in many American urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for urban planning. suburb A subsidiary urban area surrounding and connected to the central city. Many are exclusively residential; others have their own commercial centers or shopping malls. squatter town area where people occupy land without the owner's permission smart growth environmentally friendly development practices particularly those that emphasize more efficient infrastructure and less dependence on automobiles greenfield developments projects built on previously undeveloped farmlands or forests on the outskirts of large cities brownfield development building on abandoned, reclaimed industrial sites conservation development aka "cluster housing", "open space zoning," preserves at least half of a subdivision as natural areas, farmland, or other forms of open space landfill permanent waste disposal facility e-waste waste such as cell phones, computer monitors, etc. that contain heavy metals and other toxic materials. Problem with US exporting it to China. sanitary landfill A place to deposit solid waste, where a layer of earth is bulldozed over garbage each day to reduce emissions of gases and odors from the decaying trash, to minimize fires, and to discourage vermin. energy recovery heat derived from incinerators can be used to heat buildings and/or generate electricity recycling the act of processing used or abandoned materials for use in creating new products incinerator A thermal device in which solid waste is burned for the purpose of volume reduction. An incinerator used to obtain energy is classified as an energy recovery facility. refuse-derived fuel fuel derived from trash mass burn incineration of unsorted solid waste composting A mixture of decaying organic matter, as from leaves and manure, used to improve soil structure and provide nutrients. demanufacturing disassembly of products so components can be reused or recycled photodegradable materials that can be broken down by UV radiation biodegradable capable of being readily decomposed into harmless substances by living microorganisms biodegradable plastic incorporate such materials as cornstarch that can be decomposed by microorganisms hazardous waste A solid that, because of its quantity or concentration or its physical, chemical or infectious characteristics, may cause or pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported or disposed of, or otherwise managed. CERCLA aka SUPERFUND. Addresses abandoned or historical waste sites and was enacted in 1980 to create a tax on the chemical and petroleum industries. Provided federal authority to respond to releases of hazardous waster. SARA Increase Superfund to $8.5 billion. Shares responsibility for cleanup among potentially responsible parties. Emphasizes remediation and public "right to know." toxic release inventory a program created by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1984 that requires manufacturing facilities and waste handling and disposal sites to report annually on releases of more than 300 toxic materials superfund a revolving pool of money designed to provide immediate response to emergency situations that pose imminent hazards, and to clean up or remediate abandoned or inactive sites brownfield places that have been abandoned and contain dangerous chemicals permanent retrievable storage placing waste storage containers in a secure building, salt mine, or bedrock cavern where they can be inspected periodically and retrieved, if necessary secure landfills a solid waste disposal site lined and capped with an impermeable barrier to prevent leakage or leaching. drain tiles, sampling wells, and vent systems provide monitoring and pollution control leachate a liquid that has passed through compacted solid waste in a landfill NIMBY the idea that people do not want hazardous/toxic waste and/or industry in their neighborhood. Results in burden being placed on undereducated, poor minority groups. LED (light-emitting diode) consumes 90% less energy & lasts 100x's longer than ordinary lightbulbs energy efficiency The percentage of energy put into a system that does useful work co-generation simultaneous production of electricity and steam in the same facility hybrid gasoline-electric engine battery-powered electric motor with a small gasoline engine to help accelerate and/or recharge battery plug-in hybrid electric motor that can be recharged, can travel up to 40 miles on 1 overnight charge passive collection The use of building materials by design to keep a building warm or cool active collection the use of devices, such as solar panels, to collect, focus, transport, or store solar energy. photovoltaic cells Cells, usually made of specially-treated silicon, that transfer solar energy from the sun to electrical energy solar cooker insulated box that can be used for heating and cooking in developing countries, costs a few dollars green pricing Allowing customers of utilities to voluntarily pay more for electricity that comes from renewable sources amorphous silicon collectors noncrytalline silicon semiconductors that can be made into lightweight, paper-think sheets that require much less material than conventional photovoltaic cells fuel cell produces electricity chemically by combining hydrogen fuel with oxygen from air reformer an apparatus that reforms the molecular structure of hydrocarbons to produce richer fuel biomass total amount of living tissue within a given trophic level dung fecal matter of animals biodiesel A diesel-equivalent, processed fuel derived from biological sources (such as vegetable oils), that can be used in unmodified diesel-engine vehicles. cellulosic a plastic made from cellulose (or a derivative of cellulose) flex-fuel vehicle can burn variable mixtures of ethanol and gasoline energy crop can be grown specifically as an energy source of marginal land, such as switch grass, cattails, and hybrid poplar low-input high-diversity biofuels mixed polycultures of perennial native species with a lot of biomass low-head hydro power small-scale headwater dam that causes less damage than larger projects micro-hydro generators small generator to provide economical power for a single home that is near a perennial stream or river geothermal energy energy derived from the heat in the interior of the earth ocean thermal electric conversion heat from sun-warmed upper ocean layers is used to evaporate a working fluid (ammonia or Freon, low boiling points), use the gas to spin turbines turbine rotary engine in which the kinetic energy of a moving fluid is converted into mechanical energy by causing a bladed rotor to rotate wind farm Cluster of wind turbines grouped together to produce a large amount of electricity work force x distance power rate at which work is done energy the capacity to do work joule the SI unit of energy fossil fuel fuel consisting of the remains of organisms preserved in rocks in the earth's crust with high carbon and hydrogen content proven reserves An accurate estimate of how much of the resource can be extracted on an economic basis black lung disease a disease that is caused from years of inhaling coal dust carbon sequestration storing carbon in a natural sink or a geologic reservoir underground coal-to-liquid a technology that converts dry coal into a liquid fuel to replace diesel and jet fuels. There are multiple methods, but the process proposed for use in the US would first use heat and pressure to gasify the coal, then cool the gas to form a liquid—an energy-intensive process. ANWR controversial drilling grounds housing 3-8 billion oil barrels. 6-11 months supply for U.S. only; home to sensitive caribou calving grounds seam a stratum of ore or coal thick enough to be mined with profit tar sands Canada & Venezuela have the largest deposits; an underground sand deposit permeated with a thick, asphalt-like oil known as bitumen. The bitumen can be separated from the sand by heating. oil shale a soft, fine-grained sedimentary rock from which oil and natural gas are obtained by heating; found in CO, UT, WY, and eastern US petroleum an oily, dark-colored, flammable liquid found in the earth, consisting mainly of a mixture of various hydrocarbons. Gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil, paraffin, and lubricants are made from petroleum crude oil Unrefined Petroleum natural gas A mixture of hydrocarbon gases that occur with petroleum deposits half-life time it takes for half the sample to decay methane hydrate This solid consisting of molecules of methane within a crystal lattice of water ice molecules occurs underground in some Artic locations and more widely under the seafloor on the contenental shelves. coal-bed methane methane held in place by pressure from overlying aquifers; pumping water out of the aquifers releases the gas, but creates huge amounts of contaminated effluent nuclear power Energy that is harnessed from reactions among radioactive isotopes, most commonly used is uranium 235 nuclear fusion a nuclear reaction in which nuclei combine to form more massive nuclei with the simultaneous release of energy nuclear fission a nuclear reaction in which a massive nucleus splits into smaller nuclei with the simultaneous release of energy fuel assembly a bundle of hollow metal rods containing uranium oxide pellets; used to fuel nuclear reactor. critical mass the minimum mass of a fissionable isotope that provides the number of neutrons needed to sustain a chain reaction chain reaction a reaction in which the material that starts the reaction is also one of the products and can start another reaction breeder reactor a fission reactor that is designed to breed more fissionable fuel then is put into it by converting nosfissionable isotopes to fissionable isotops high-level waste repository an area to store intensely radioactive wastes buried deep in the ground, hopefully unexposed to groundwater and earthquakes for the thousands of years required for radioactive materials to decay to a safe level monitored, retrievable storage holding nuclear wastes in underground mines or secure surface facilities where they can be watched, and removed for repacking if canisters leak decommissioning dismantling and disposal of old nuclear reactors NIMBY Not in my backyard!!! kerogen Solid, waxy mixture of hydrocarbons found in oil shale rock. Heating the rock to high temperatures causes the kerogen to vaporize. The vapor is condensed, purified, and then sent to a refinery to produce gasoline, heating oil, and other products. See also oil shale, shale oil. Light water reactor A common type of commercial nuclear reactor that uses ordinary (light) water as the moderator; Cold water from a local source is used to condense the steam, and that warm water is returned to the environment (thermal pollution) low-level wastes Wastes that give off small amounts of radiation; Must be stored safely for 100-500 yrs; Most in the U.S. are put in steel drums and dumped into the ocean, others are put in landfills high-level wastes Waste that gives off high amounts of radiation for a short time, or low amounts for a long time; Spent fuel rods and wastes from making bombs point source A specific source of pollution that can be identified, such as a pipe. nonpoint source Large or dispersed land areas such as crop fields, streets, and lawns that discharge pollutants into the environment over a large area. atmospheric deposition contaminants carried by air currents and precipitated into watersheds or directly onto surface waters coliform bacteria used as a common measure of biological pollution and as a standard measure of microbial pollution. It is usually harmless, part of the normal constituents of human intestines and found in all human waste. BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic materials DO measure of dissolved oxygen in the water oxygen sag oxygen levels decline downstream from a pollution source as decomposers metabolize waste materials oligotrophic Describes the water which is nutrient poor, deep & cold, little organic matter (little phytoplanktin) eutrophic lakes that are rich with organic matter and vegetation that are typically murky red tide a population explosion of certain marine dinoflagellates that causes the water to turn a red or red-brown color and to contain poisonous alkaloids produced by the dinoflagellates cultural eutrophication Overnourishment of aquatic ecosystems with plant nutrients (mostly nitrates and phosphates) because of human activities such as agriculture, urbanization, and discharges from industrial plants and sewage treatment plants. thermal pollution harm to lakes and rivers resulting from the release of excessive waste heat into them total maximum daily load (TMDL) EPA administered program to address non-point-source water pollution that sets pollution limits according to the abilityof a body of water to assimilate different pollutants. MBTE groundwater contaminant, mainly from leaking underground storage tanks at gas stations primary treatment After passing through grates and screens, the water is allowed to settle in clarifiers (tanks), which separates the solids from the liquids. Still has a substantial BOD. secondary treatment Treating wastewater biologically, by using microorganisms to decompose the suspended organic material; occurs after primary treatment tertiary treatment Highest form of wastewater treatment that includes removal of nutrients, organic and solid material, along with biological & chemical polishing. effluent sewerage a low-cost alternative sewage treatment for cities in poor countries that combines some features of septic systems and centralized municipal teatment systems transpiration the emission of water vapor from the leaves of plants evaporation the process by which water changes from liquid form to an atmospheric gas sublimation a change directly from the solid to the gaseous state without becoming liquid saturation point when a volume of air contains as much water vapor as it can hold at a given temperature relative humidity the ratio of the amount of water in the air at a give temperature to the maximum amount it could hold at that temperature condensation the process by which molecules of water vapor in the air become liquid water dew point the temperature at which the water vapor in the air becomes saturated and condensation begins condensation nuclei solid particles in the atmosphere, such as ice and dust, that provide the surfaces on which water vapor condenses rain shadow dry area found on the leeward side of a mountain range residence time The average time a given molecule of water or other substance will stay in a given water source groundwater water that fills the cracks and spaces in underground soil and rock layers infiltration This step of the water cycle occurs when the water is pulled into the ground due to the pull of gravity. zone of aeration Area above the water table where openings in soil, sediment, and rock are not saturated but are filled mainly with air. Above water table zone of saturation lower region of groundwater where all the pore spaces in a rock or sediment are filled with water water table the upper surface of underground water; the upper boundary of the zone of saturation aquifer a body of rock or sediment that stores groundwater and allows the flow of groundwater artesian well a well in which water rises because of pressure within the aquifer recharge zone Area of the Earth's surface where water percolates down into the aquifer discharge The volume of water that flows within a given time renewable water supplies annual freshwater surface runoff plus annual infiltration into underground freshwater aquifers that are accessible for human use withdrawal the total amount of water taken from a lake, river, or aquifer for any purpose; much is returned to circulation in a form that can be used again consumption the fraction of withdrawn water that is lost in transmission, evaporation, absorption, chemical transformation, or otherwise made unavailable for other purposes as a result of human use degraded deteriorated in water quality due to contamination or pollution; makes water unsuitable for other desirable purposes dam a structure built across a river or stream that restricts the flow of water traveling downstream sedimentation the addition of soils to water bodies by natural and human related activities. It decreases water quality and accelerates the aging process of lakes, rivers, and streams. reservoir an artificial lake where the water that is prevented from gong downstream (by a dam) collects subsidence collapse of ground due to groundwater removal sinkhole when the roof of an underground channel or cavern collapses, creating a large surface crater saltwater intrusion Movement of salt water into freshwater aquifers in coastal and inland areas as groundwater is withdrawn faster than it is recharged by precipitation. desalination the removal of salt from seawater to make it usable for drinking and farming, very expensive on a large scale primary pollutant a pollutant that is put directly into the air by human activity secondary pollutant pollutant formed by the chemical reactions of other primary or secondary pollutants fugitive emissions Substances that enter the air without going through a smokestack, such as dust from soil erosion, strip mining, rock crushing, construction or building demolition ambient air the air immediately around us conventional pollutants aka "criteria pollutants"; sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, particulates, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, photochemical oxidants, lead, carbon dioxide sulfur dioxide produced by chemical interacting between sulfur and oxygen. Contributes to acid rain. Harms plant life, irritates respiratory system when it's a secondary pollutant nitrogen oxides (source: auto exhaust) (effects: acidification of lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog & ozone) (Equation for acid formation: NO + O2 = NO2 + H2O = HNO3) (Reduction: catalytic converter) carbon monoxide Colorless, odorless poisonous gas produced as a by-product of incomplete combustion; can be dangerous if not properly ventilated VOC's (volatile organic compounds) carbon-containing chemicals used in and emitted by vehicle engines and a wide variety of solvents and industrial processes; creates smog, carcinogen aerosol a suspension in the atmosphere of a solid such as dust, salt, and pollen. and liquid droplets such as acids particulate bits of dust, dirt and small matter in the air halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine); combine with most metals to form salts. photochemical oxidants Products of secondary atmospheric reactions driven by solar energy; causes smog. hazardous air pollutants special category of pollutants monitored by the EPA such as carcinogens, neurotoxins, mutagens, teratogens, endocrine disrupters; aka HAP's TRI (Toxic Release Inventory) community right-to-know toxin release reports from factories, refineries, hard rock mines, power plants, and chemical manufacturers aesthetic degradation undesirable changes in the physical characteristics or chemistry of the atmosphere; ex: noise, odors, light pollution climate the average weather conditions in an area over a long period of time temperature inversion the atmospheric condition that causes pollution to be trapped at ground level by a layer of warm air above it dust dome Dome of heated air that surrounds an urban area and contains a lot of air pollution (particulate matter) in high winds pollution plumes downwind in rural areas heat island Phenomenon describing urban and suburban tempuratures that are 2 to 10 degrees F(1 to 6 degrees C)hotter than nearby rural areas. stratospheric ozone good ozone that keeps out ultraviolet radiation CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) from air conditioners and refrigerators that destroy the ozone layer Montreal Protocol meeting in 1987 where a group of nations met in Canada and agreed to take steps to fight against Ozone Depletion-CFC's banned bronchitis inflammation of the mucus membrane of the bronchial tubes chronic obstructive lung disease Irreversible damage to the lining of the lungs caused by irritants synergistic effects combined effects of two pollutants are greater than the sum of their seperate effects acid rain rain containing acids that form in the atmosphere when industrial gas emissions (especially sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) combine with water restoration to return a biological community to its pre-disturbance structure and function rehabilitation to rebuild a community to a useful, functioning state but not necessarily its original condition intervention to apply techniques to discourage or reduce undesired organisms and favor or promote desired species reallocation to use a site (and its resources) to create a new and different kind of biological community rather than the existing one remediation to clean chemical contaminants from a polluted area using relatively mild or nondestructive methods reclamation to use powerful chemical or physical methods to clean and repair severely degraded or even barren sites mitigation The policy of constructing or creating man-made habitats, such as wetlands, to replace those lost to development resilient able to recover quickly The Nature Conservancy (TNC) helps to protect Earth's most important natural places — for you and future generations wetlands ecosystems of several types in which rooted vegetation is surrounded by standing water during part of the year Everglades a large subtropical swamp in southern Florida that supports myriad fish, invertebrates, birds, alligators, and the rare Florida panther Chesapeake Bay the largest estuary in the United States. degraded deteriorated in quality due to contamination or pollution; Ex: makes water unsuitable for other desirable purposes buffalo commons suggestion for the use of much of the empty Great Plains - an area where bison and other native wildlife could roam freely delta a low triangular area where a river divides before entering a larger body of water estuary the area where a freshwater stream or river merges with the ocean watershed An ecosystem where all water runoff drains into a single body of water riparian of or relating to or located on the banks of a river or stream closed-canopy forests area in which tree crowns cover most of the ground old-growth forest primeval forests home to much of the world's biodiversity, endangered species, and indigenous human cultures; forests that cover a large enough area and have been undisturbed by human activities long enough that tress can live out a natural cycle and ecological processes can occur in relatively normal fashion monoculture forestry Intensive planting of a single species; an efficient wood production approach, but one that encourages pests and disease infestations and conflicts with wildlife habitat or recreation uses deforestation destruction of forests; topical forests are being cleared rapidly debt-for-nature swaps financial transactions in which a portion of a developing nation's foreign debt is forgiven in exchange for local investments in conservation measures. clear-cutting every tree in a given area is cut, regardless of size shelter-wood harvesting partial harvesting that allows new stems to grow up under an overstory of maturing trees; the shelterwood may be removed at a later date (5 to 10 years) strip-cutting harvesting of all the trees in a narrow corridor selective cutting Harvesting only mature trees of certain species and size (10-20 yr rotation); usually more expensive than clear cutting, but it is less disruptive for wildlife and often better for forest regeneration. ecosystem management an integration of ecological, economic, and social goals in a unified systems approach to resource management. overgrazing Destruction of vegetation caused by too many grazing animals consuming the plants in a particular area so they cannot recover rotational grazing Confining animals to a small area for a short time (often only a day or two) before shifting them to a new location IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature; a coalition of the world's leading conservation groups world conservation strategy IUCN developed plan that includes the 3 objectives: to maintain essential ecological processes and life-support systems, to preserve genetic diversity essential for breeding programs to improve cultivated plants and domesticated animals, and to ensure that any utilization of wild species and ecosystems is sustainable ecotourism a form of tourism that supports the conservation and sustainable development of ecologically unique areas UNESCO United Nations agency that promotes international collaboration on culture, education, and science corridors A strip of natural habitat that connects two adjacent nature preserves to allow migration of organisms from one place to another core habitat Areas deep in the interior of a habitat area and that core habitat has better conditions for specialized species than do edges edge effect different environmental conditions that occur along the boundaries of an ecosystem landscape ecology The study of past, present, and future patterns of landscape use, as well as ecosystem management and the biodiversity of interacting ecosystems crown fire Extremely hot fire that leaps from treetop to treetop - occurs in forests with no surface fires for several decades (an excessive amount of deadwood has built up) - this kills most vegetation, wildlife, buildings and creates soil erosion surface fire Forest fire that burns only undergrowth and leaf litter on the forest floor. ground fire Fire that burns decayed leaves or peat deep below the ground surface, may smolder for days or weeks, difficult to detect and extinguish (peat bogs) fishery areas (freshwater or saltwater) in which fish or sea animals are caught commercially driftnets nets that are dragged through the water and indiscriminately catch everything in their path. by-catch unwanted marine creatures that are caught in the nets while fishing for another species long lining a long line with baited hooks. it targets a variety of pelagic species , best known for tuna swordfish and marlins. disadvantages: by-catch, catches endangered species bottom trawling a fishing technique in which the ocean floor is literally scraped by heavy nets that smash everything in their path. This is very detremental to the ecosystem. wilderness area federal land that is designated off-limits to development of any kind but is open to public recreation, such as hiking, nature study, and other activities that have minimal impact on the land national parks One form of reserve that is intended to protect natural and scenic areas of national or international significance for scientific, educational and recreational use purse-seine a seine (drawstring net) designed to be set by two boats around a school of fish and then closed at the bottom by means of a line International whaling commission 1946 - regulates the proper areas, techniques, and limits on the hunting of techniques; banned all whaling in 1986; no enforcement wilderness act 1964; established 9.1 million aces of federally-protected wilderness in national forests for use of American people; made minimum size of each space 5,000 acres; no vehicles, permanent camps or structures allowed; aim is to keep wildlife and habitat as primitive as possible wild and scenic rivers act Selected rivers in the United States are preserved for possessing outstandingly, remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural, or other similar values Magnuson Act (1976) Management of marine fisheries biodiversity the variety of species living within an ecosystem genetic diversity the amount of variation in the genetic material within all members of a popualtion species diversity the number and relative abundance of species in a biological community ecological diversity the richness and complexity of of a biological community, including the number of niches, trophic levels, and ecological processes that capture energy, sustain food webs, and recycle materials within this system species richness the number of different species in a community species evenness the relative abundance of a species evolutionary species concept Defines species according to evolutionary history and common ancestors biodiversity hot spot areas with 1500 or more endemics, and 70% habitat loss; a relatively small area with an exceptional concentration of endemic species and a large number of endangered and threatened species extinction no longer in existence HIPPO Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, Population (human), and Overharvesting, the leading causes of extinction habitat destruction Damage done to a habitat that results in the loss of resources that organisms need to survive, like food, water, and shelter invasive species exotic (non-native) species that enter a new ecosystem and multiply harming native speeicies and their habitat overharvesting catching or removing from a population more organisms than the population can replace island ecosystem areas particularly susceptible to damage by invasive species ESA Endangered Species Act endangered species a species whose numbers are so small that the species is at risk of extinction threatened species A species that is likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range vulnerable species naturally rare organisms or species whose numbers have been so reduced by human activities that they are susceptible to actions that could push them into threatened or endangered status recovery plans once species is listed, USFWS is required to propose a recovery plan detailing the rebuilding of the species to sustainable levels,total cost of all current plans is $5 billion habitat conservation plans (HCP), Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) negotiates agreements with private landowners where landowners are allowed to harvest resources or build on part of their land as long as the species benefits overall gap analysis a biogeographical technique of mapping biological diversity and endemic species to find gaps between protected areas that leave endangered habitats vulnerable to disruption CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of 1975 it is a step toward worldwide protection of endangered flora and fauna. captive breeding the mating of animals in zoos or wildlife preserves keystone species a species that is critical to the functioning of the ecosystem in which it lives because it affects the survival and abundance of many other species in its community. EX: prairie dogs, bison indicator species Species that serve as early warnings that a community or ecosystem is being degraded. EX: brook trout umbrella species require large areas of undisturbed habitat to maintain viable populations. Saving this habitat also benefits other species. EX: northern spotted owl, elephant flagship species Especially interesting or attractive organisms that people respond to emotionally. Motivate public to preserve biodiversity and contribute to conservation. EX: giant panda (youtube.com: panda sneezing) biological pests organisms that reduce the availability, quality, or value of resources useful to humans pesticide a chemical used to kill pests (as rodents or insects) biocide a broad-spectrum poison that kills a wide range of organisms. herbicide a chemical agent that destroys plants or inhibits their growth insecticide a chemical used to kill insects fungicide any agent that destroys or prevents the growth of fungi DDT one of the first widely used pesticides, good example of biological magnification inorganic pesticide include compounds of arsenic, sulfur, copper, lead and mercury. Broad-spectrum poisons that are generally highly toxic and essentially indestructible. natural organic pesticide botanicals, generally extracted from plants. Ex: nicotine, turpentine fumigant Pesticide in the form of either a poisonous gas or a liquid which becomes a gas when applied chlorinated hydrocarbon Organic compound made up of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine. Examples include DDT and PCBs. organophosphates modern synthetic pesticides that break down faster than chlorinated hydrocarbons but are far more toxic for short-term contact such as Malathion, parathion; Most commonly used insecticide in U.S., WWI chemical warfare carbamates toxic to bees, may be the new DDT microbial agents beneficial microbes (bacteria, fungi) that can be used to suppress or control pests biological agents any living organism that can be used to suppress or control pests pest resurgence rebound of pest populations due to acquired resistance to chemicals and nonspecific destruction of natural predators and competitors by broadscale pesticides POP A group of persistent, toxic chemicals that bioaccumulation in organisms and can travel thousands of kilometers through air and water to contaminate sites far removed from their source WHO a United Nations agency to coordinate international health activities and to help governments improve health services bioaccumulation Increasing concentrations of potentially toxic substances in living organisms; easily ingested, but not biodegradable biomagnification Increase in concentration of certain stable chemicals (for example, heavy metals or fat-soluble pesticides) in successively higher trophic levels of a food chain or web IPM an ecologically based pest-control strategy that relies on natural mortality factos,sucha s natural enemies, weather, cultural control methods, and carefully applied doses of pesticides as a last resort. EPA an independent federal agency established to coordinate programs aimed at reducing pollution and protecting the environment FDA (Food and Drug Administration) The agency that is responsible for determining if a food or drug is safe and effective enough to be sold to the public. USDA (US Dept of Ag) The federal department that administers programs that provide services to farmers (including research and soil conservation and efforts to stabilize the farming economy) FDCA (Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic act) drugs must comply with standards of safety and efficacy CAFO concentrated animal feeding operation aquaculture the raising of aquatic organisms for human consumption humus material formed from decaying leaves and other organic matter micorrhizal symbiosis an association betwen the roots of most plant species and certain fungi. the plant provides organic compounds to the fungus, while the fungus provides water and nutrients to the plant topsoil Mixture of humus, clay, and other minerals that forms the crumbly, topmost layer of soil. soil horizons distinctive horizontal layers that differ in physical composition, chemical composition or organic content or structure soil profile a cross-section in which layers of the soil and bedrock can be seen subsoil a layer of soil beneath the topsoil that has lower organic content and higher concentrations of fine mineral particles; often contains soluble compounds and clay particles carried down by percolating water land degradation reduction in the productive potential of the land soil erosion the wearing away of surface soil by water and wind sheet erosion peeling off thin layers of soil from the land surface; accomplished primarily by wind and water rill erosion the removing of thin layers of soil as little rivulets of running water gather and cut small channels in the soil gully erosion removal of layers of soil, creating channels or ravines too large to be removed by normal tillage operations desertification the gradual transformation of habitable land into desert waterlogging water saturation of sol that fills all air spaces and causes plant roots to die from lack of oxygen; a result of overirrigation salinization A process in which mineral salts accumulate in the soil, killing plants; occurs when soils in dry climates are irrigated profusely fertilizer any substance such as manure or a mixture of nitrates used to make soil more fertile green revolution the introduction of pesticides and high-yield grains and better management during the 1960s and 1970s which greatly increased agricultural productivity Norman Borlaug Founder of Green Revolution GMOs selected for things such as salt tolerance in tomato plants,synthesis of beta-carotene in rice,herbicide resistance in crop plants ,factor IX (human blood clotting) in sheep, genetic engineering the technology of preparing recombinant DNA in vitro by cutting up DNA molecules and splicing together fragments from more than one organism sustainable agriculture Long-term productive farming methods that are environmentally safe. topography the surface features of a place or region. Includes hills, valleys, streams, lakes, bridges, tunnels, and roads. contour plowing plowing fields along the curves of a slope to prevent soil loss strip farming Planting different kinds of crops in alternating strips along land contours; when one crop is harvested, the other crop remains to protect the soil and prevent water from running straight down a hill terracing shaping the land to create level shelves of earth to hold water and soil; requires extensive hand labor or expensive machinery, but it enables farmers to farm very steep hillsides perennial Plants that grow for more than two years cover crops plants, such as rye, alfalfa, or clover, that can be planted immediately after harvest to hold and protect the soil reduced tillage systems systems, such as minimum till, conserve-till, and no-till, that preserve soil, save energy and water, and increase crop yields locavore a person who consumes locally produced food agroecology the study of the role of agriculture in the world in terms of sustainability chronically undernourished those people whose diet doesn't provide the 2,200 kcal per day, on average, considered necessary for a healthy productive life food security The ability of individuals to obtain sufficient food on a day-to-day basis famine a severe shortage of food (as through crop failure) resulting in violent hunger and starvation and death malnourishment the long-term absence from the diet of one or more essential nutrients anemia a deficiency of red blood cells kwashiorkor severe malnutrition in children resulting from a diet excessively high in carbohydrates and low in protein; reddish orange hair, puffy, bloated belly marasmus extreme malnutrition and emaciation (especially in children) toxin poison allergen substance that activates the immune system antigen any substance (as a toxin or enzyme) that stimulates the production of antibodies sick building syndrome headaches, allergies, chronic fatigue and other symptoms caused by poorly vented indoor air contaminated by mold spores, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde, and other toxins released from carpets, insulation, plastics, building materials, and other sources endocrine disruptor disrupt normal hormone functions. Ex: bisphenol A, dioxins, PCBs neurotoxin attack nerve cells. Ex: lead, mercury, ether, chloroform, DDT, organophosphates mutagen agents, such as chemicals and radiation, that damage or alter DNA teratogen any agent that interferes with normal embryonic development: alcohol or thalidomide or X-rays or rubella are examples carcinogen an agent that causes cancer bioaccumulation the selective absorption and concentration of molecules by cells biomagnification Increase in concentration of certain stable chemicals (for example, heavy metals or fat-soluble pesticides) in successively higher trophic levels of a food chain or web POP (persistent organic pollutants) chemical compounds that persist in the environment and retain biological activity for long times. PBDE (polybrominated diphenyl ethers) polybrominated diphenyl ethers; flame retardant chemicals used in textiles, foam in upholstery, and plastic in appliances and computers. Low exposures in the womb/shortly after birth can harm children's reproductive & nervous systems. PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonate) chemicals used to make nonstick, waterproof, and stain-resistant products such as Teflon, Gortex, Scotchguard, and Stainmaster. Cause liver damage, cancer, and reproductive and developmental problems in rats. Especially dangerous to women and girls. phthalates found in cosmetics, deodorants, and many plastics used for food packaging, children's toys, and medical devices. Cause kidney & liver damage, cancer, and low sperm counts. perchlorate waterborne contaminant left over from propellants & rocket fuels. Found in nearly every sample in the human food chain in the U.S. Interferes with iodine uptake, disrupting adult metabolism & childhood development. bisphenol A (BPA) water bottles are made of this; causes aneuploidy (abnormal chromosome numbers, which is the leading cause of miscarriages and several forms of mental retardation). It's also an environmental estrogen & may alter sexual development in both males & females atrazine most widely used herbicide in US on corn and cereal grains, as well as golf courses, sugar cane, and Christmas trees. Endocrine disruptor. Found in rain and surface waters nearly everywhere in the US at levels that could cause abnormal development in frogs. body burden the accumulation of hundreds of persistent toxins in our bodies synergism when toxins work together to intensify the effect LD50 A chemical dose lethal to 50 percent of a test population acute having or experiencing a rapid onset and short but severe course chronic being long-lasting and recurrent or characterized by long suffering World Heath Organization (WHO) a United Nations agency to coordinate international health activities and to help governments improve health services health a healthy state of wellbeing free from disease disease abnormal change in the body's condition that impairs physical or psychological functions pathogen disease-causing organism morbidity illness disability adjusted life years (DALYs) measuring of disease burden/ combines premature deaths and loss of a healthy life resulting from illness or disability infectious disease A disease that is caused by a pathogen and that can be spread from one individual to another. emergent disease disease not known or absent for 20 years. Ex. HIV/AIDS, Ebola, West Nile vector any agent (person or animal or microorganism) that carries and transmits a disease ecological disease affects domestic animals and wildlife. Ex. Chronic Wasting disease in deer, behavior changes, weight loss virulent extremely poisonous or injurious hemorrhagic pertaining to bursting forth of blood, Ebola Malthus exponential population growth results in disease and famine, causes resource depletion, pollution, and poverty. People must have "moral restraint", late marriage, and insufficient resources to slow growth. Marx population growth results from poverty, resource depletion, pollution, etc. People must be treated justly to slow population growth. demography scientific study of human populations crude birth rate the number of live births yearly per thousand people in a population total fertility rate Avergae number of children born to women of a population during their reproductive years. zero population growth when the birth rate equals the death rate crude death rate The number of deaths per year per 1,000 people. natural population increase the extent to which live births exceed deaths total growth rate The net rate of population growth resulting from births, deaths, immigration, and emigration dependency ratio The number of nonworking members compared to working members for a given population pronatalist pressures Influences that encourage people to have children demographic transition the process by which a country moves from relatively high birth and death rates to relatively low birth and death rates birth dearth fertility rates fall below the replacement level of 2.1 children per couple social justice all people are entitled to basic necessities such as adequate income and health protection and accepts collective burdens to make such possible Rule of 70 Divide 70 by the annual percentage growth to find approximate doubling time of a population biotic the living organisms in an ecosystem abiotic nonliving, physical features of the environment, including air, water, sunlight, soil, temperature, and climate biotic potential the maximum reproductive rate of an organism, given unlimited resources and ideal environmental conditions j-curve graph that represents exponential growth s-curve graph that represents logistic growth carrying capacity largest number of individuals of a population that a given environment can support overshoot The extent to which a population exceeds the carrying capacity of its environment population crash a sudden population decline caused by predation, waste accumulation, or resource depletion. r-selected species reproduce early in life and often, high capacity for reproductive growth k-selected species reproduce later in life, produce fewer offspring, devote significant time and energy to nurturing their offspring fertility measurement of actual number of offspring produced survivorship the percentage of a population reaching a given age or the proportion of the maximum life span of the species reached by an individual life expectancy The average number of years an individual can be expected to live, given current social, economic, and medical conditions. Life expectancy at birth is the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live. life span the longest period of life reached by a given type of organism boom-and-bust cycle common among r-strategists; rapid change in population increase leads to an equally rapid drop-off predator-prey cycle rabbit population increases, coyote population increases, coyotes eat rabbits, rabbit population decreases, less food for coyotes, coyote population decreases. Rabbit population increases... density-dependent factor interactions between populations of a community which decrease natality or increase mortality density-independent factor abiotic components of the ecosystem, such as weather and climate, which can have devastating impacts on particular populations immigration the movement of individuals into a population emigration movement of individuals out of a population genetic drift changes in the gene pool of a small population due to chance. Tends to reduce genetic variation. demographic bottleneck (or founder effect) A population founded when just a few members of a species survive a catastrophic even or colonize new habitat geographically isolated from other members of the same species minimum viable population size number of individuals needed for long-term survival of rare and endangered species phytoplankton Microscopic, free-floating, autotrophic organisms that function as producers in aquatic ecosystems benthic The bottom surfaces of aquatic environments pelagic Of the open ocean; refers to the water above the deep ocean basins, sediments of oceanic origin, or organisms of the open ocean. coral reefs Warm water, tropical, ecosystems dominated by the hard skeletal structures secreted primarily by the resident cnidarians. coral bleaching when corals eject the zooxanthellae which causes loss of color; this happens because corals are stressed by temperature changes (warmer), diseases, chemiclas, etc. mangroves tropical trees that grow with their roots in salt water and are important because marine life lives among their roots. estuaries area where a freshwater stream or river merges with the ocean, salinity varies greatly salt marshes temperate zones estuaries that are dominated by salt tolerant grasses barrier islands low, narrow, sandy islands that form offshore from a coastline. thermocline In water, a distinctive temperature transition zone that separates an upper layer that is mixed by wind (the epilimnion) and a colder, deep layer that is not mixed (the hypolimnion) wetlands Lands where water saturation is the dominant factor determining the nature of the soil development and the plant and animal communities (e.g., sloughs, estuaries, marshes). littoral zone a shallow region of the shore in a lake or ocean where light reaches the bottom and nurtures plants epipelagic zone Ocean: The pelagic environment from the surface to 200 m. Plenty of sunlight to promote photosynthesis. mesopelagic zone Ocean: the pelagic environment between 200 and 1000 m; light intensity too low for photosynthesis, many organisms have eyes adapted to low light levels bathypelagic zone Ocean: The pelagic environment from a depth of 1000 m to 4000 m. No sunlight at all. abyssal zone Ocean: The portion of the ocean floor where light does not penetrate and where temperatures are cold and pressures intense. hadal zone Ocean: deepest zone, consists of the floor and the ocean trenches. Animals consist of: sponges, worms, clams epilimnion Freshwater: An upper layer of warm water with high levels of dissolved oxygen hypolimnion Freshwater: deeper water; cold, dense; decomposition dominates; low dissolved oxygen benthos the communities of organisms living in the bottom zone of an aquatic biome (such as snails, burrowing worms, and fish). Low oxygen levels (little mixing of water) oligotrophic a nutrient poor, oxygen rich, clear, deep lake with few phytoplankton primary productivity rate at which organic matter is created by producers in an ecosystem abundance The number of individuals of a species that occur in a particular area diversity the number of species present in a community as well as the relative abundance of each species complexity the number of species at each trophic level and the number of trophic levels in a community. edge effects a change in species composition, physical conditions, or other ecological factors at the boundary between two ecosystems ecotones a boundary between two types of ecological communities. climax community a stable, mature community that undergoes little or no change in species over time primary succession colonization in a an area where no biotic community previously existed secondary succession the series of changes that occur after a disturbance of an existing ecosystem pioneer species first species to populate an area during primary succession disturbance A force that changes a biological community and usually removes organisms from it. Fires & storms play pivotal roles in structuring many biological communities vertical zonation A term applied to vegetation zones defined by altitude cloud forests High-elevation, very wet tropical forests that contain a wide variety of plants and animals tropical rainforest Forests in which rainfall is abundant - more that 200 cm (80 in) per year - and temperatures are warm or hot year-round grasslands A biome dominated by grasses and associated herbaceous plants tropical savannas characterized by a codominance of grasses and woody plants; characteristic vegetation of regions with alternating wet and dry seasons; productivity and decomposition in savanna ecosystems are closely tied to the seasonality of precipitation; support a large and varied assemblage of both invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores deserts a barren region with little or no rainfall, usually sandy and without trees temperate grasslands plains and prairies chaparral Thick, dense, thorny evergreen shrub found in Mediterranean climates temperate forests biome composed of forest of broad-leaved hardwood trees that lose their foliage annually evergreen a plant having foliage that persists and remains green throughout the year deciduous Trees and shrubs that shed their leaves at the end of the growing season coniferous term used to refer to trees that produce seed-bearing cones and have thin leaves shaped like needles temperate rainforest The cool, dense, rainy forests of the northern Pacific coast; enshrouded in fog much of the time; dominated by large conifers boreal forest A broad band of mixed coniferous and deciduous trees that stretches across northern North America (and also Europe and Asia); its northernmost edge, the taiga, intergrades with the artic tundra taiga The northernmost edge of the boreal forest, including species-poor woodland and peat deposits; intergrading with the arctic tundra tundra Treeless arctic or alpine biome characterized by cold, harsh winters, a short growing season, and permafrost; vegetation includes low-growing perennial plants, mosses and lichens adaptation inherited characteristic that increases an organism's chance of survival natural selection process by which individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; also called survival of the fittest tolerance limits chemical or physical factors that limit the existence, growth, abundance, or distribution of an organism. indicators species that have very specific environmental requirements and tolerance levels that make them good indicators of pollution or other environmental conditions habitat the area where an organism lives, grows, and develops ecological niche A specific role of a species within an ecosystem, including its use of resources, and relationships with other species. endemic native to or confined to a certain region resource partitioning in a biological community various populations sharing environmental resources through specialization thereby reducing direct competition speciation the formation of new species as a result of evolution intraspecific competition in a community, competition for resources among members of the same species. interspecific competition in a community, competition for resources between members of different species. coevolution the process in which species exert selective pressure on each other and gradually evolve new features or behaviors as a result of those pressures Batesian mimicry A type of mimicry in which a harmless species looks like a species that is poisonous or otherwise harmful to predators. Mullerian mimicry when two or more poisonous species resemble each other and gain an advantage from their combined numbers symbiosis relationship in which two species live closely together mutualism symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit from the relationship commensalism symbiotic relationship in which one member of the association benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed parasitism a symbiotic relationship whereby one organism/species benefits from the relationship and the other organism is harmed keystone species a species that is critical to the functioning of the ecosystem in which it lives because it affects the survival and abundance of many other species in its community hydrologic cycle The cycle through which water in the hydrosphere moves; includes such processes as evaporation, precipitation, and surface and groundwater runoff precipitation the falling to earth of any form of water (rain or snow or hail or sleet or mist) transpiration evaporative loss of water from a plant through its leaves runoff Water that flows over the ground surface rather than soaking into the ground, and returns to rivers, lakes, oceans evaporation the process by which water changes from liquid form to an atmospheric gas, drives hydrologic cycle percolation The downward movement of water through soil and rock due to gravity. carbon cycle a process by which carbon is cycled between the atmosphere, land, water, and organisms carbon sink places of carbon accumulation such as in large forests (organic compounds) or ocean sediments (calcium carbonate); carbon is thus removed from the carbon cycle for moderately long to very long periods of time. photosynthesis process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars and starches respiration a breathing process in which plants and animals consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide nitrogen cycle the transfer of nitrogen from the atmosphere to the soil, to living organisms, and back to the atmosphere nitrogen fixation process in which bacteria convert nitrogen gas into nitrogen compounds (bacteria found in legumes, soybeans, alfalfa, clover nitrification bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites, then other bacteria convert nitrites into nitrates assimilation plant roots absorb nitrogen compound(s) to produce proteins and nucleic acids ammonification dead plants/wastes converted back to ammonia by decomposition bacteria denitrification denitrifying bacteria return nitrogen to the atmosphere phosphorus cycle The movement of phosphorus atoms from rocks through the biosphere and hydrosphere and back to rocks. sulfur cycle The chemical and physical reactions by which sulfur moves into or out of storage and through the environment. species group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring population group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area biological community the populations of plants, animals, and microorganisms living and interacting in a certain area at a given time ecosystem collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their nonliving environment producers organisms that make their own food productivity the synthesis of new organic material. That done by green plants using solar energy is called primary productivity. biomass total amount of living tissue within a given trophic level food chain a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten food web network of complex interactions formed by the feeding relationships among the various organisms in an ecosystem trophic level each step in a food chain or food web consumers an organism that obtains energy and nutrients by feeding on other organisms or their remains. herbivores consumers that eat only plants carnivores organisms that mainly prey upon animals. omnivores an organism that eats both plants and animals. scavengers an organism that feeds on the dead bodies of other organisms. detritivores organisms that consume organic litter, debris, and dung. decomposers fungi and bacteria that break down wastes and dead organisms and return raw materials to the environment weather the short term changes in the air for a given place and time climate the average annual temperature and precipitation of a certain geographic area prevailing winds winds that blow in the same direction over large areas of Earth coriolis effect the way earth's rotation makes winds curve convection currents upward movement of warm air and the downward movement of cool air dew point the temperature at which the water vapor in the air becomes saturated and condensation begins precipitation the falling to earth of any form of water (rain or snow or hail or sleet or mist) convection cell A circular pattern of air rising, air sinking, and wind. trade winds Prevailing winds that blow northeast from 30 degrees north latitude to the equator and that blow southeast from 30 degrees south latitude to the equator jet stream a narrow belt of strong winds that blow in the upper troposphere monsoon A seasonal wind that produces a wet or dry period in a region, especially in southern Asia rainshadow the leeward side of a mountain that receives little moisture hurricane serve storm that develops over tropical oceans and whose strong winds of more than 120km/h spiral in toward the intensely low pressure storm center &is the most powerful storm on Earth El Nino (ENSO) trade winds weaken & warm surface water moves toward South America. Diminished fisheries off South America, drought in western Pacific, increased precipitation in southwestern North America, fewer Atlantic hurricanes. (see-sawing of air pressure over S. Pacific) La Nina surface waters of the ocean surrounding Central and South America are colder than normal aerosol Minute particles or liquid droplets suspended in the air troposphere the layer closest to Earth, where almost all weather occurs; the thinnest layer stratosphere the second-lowest layer of the atmosphere that contains the ozone layer; temperature increases as altitude increases ozone a form of oxygen that has three oxygen atoms in each molecule instead of two. In the stratosphere, protects us from dangerous ultraviolet radiation from the sun. In the troposphere BAD mesosphere the layer of the atmosphere between the stratosphere and the thermosphere and in which temperature decreases as altitude increases thermosphere The outermost layer of the atmosphere, in which temperature increases as altitude increases albedo percent of solar radiation reflected by a surface positive feedback loop and response go in the same direction, Situation in which a change in a certain direction provides information that causes a system to change further in the same direction. This can lead to a runaway or vicious cycle. Example: melting of arctic sea ice greenhouse effect warming that results when solar radiation is trapped by the atmosphere orographic lifting mountains acting as barriers to the flow of air force the air to ascend; the air cools adiabatically, and clouds and precipitation may result