Anatomy 1 Exam
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mortuusmemoria on April 26, 2012
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264 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Gross anatomy | aka macroscopic anatomy. study of large body structures in a particular region of the body |
| Systemic anatomy | body structure studied system by system |
| Surface anatomy | study of internal structures as they relate to overlying skin surface |
| Microscopic anatomy | deals with structures too small to be seen by the visible eye |
| Developmental anatomy | traces structural changes that occur in the body throughout the life span |
| Renal physiology | concerns kidney function and urine production |
| Neurophysiology | explains workings of nervous system |
| Cardiovascular physiology | examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels |
| Principle of complementary structure and function | anatomy and physiology are almost inseparable because function always reflects structure |
| What are the different levels of structural organization from smallest to largest | 1. Chemical level 2. Cellular level 3. Tissue level 4. Organ level 5. Organ system level 6. Organismal level |
| What are necessary life functions? | Maintaining boundaries Movement Responsiveness Digestion Metabolism Excretion Reproduction Growth |
| What are survival needs | Nutrients Water Normal body temp Appropriate atmospheric pressure |
| What is essential for homeostatic control | communication within the body is essential which is chiefly accomplished by the nervous and endocrine systems |
| What are components of homeostatic control mechanisms | 1. receptor 2. control center 3. effector |
| What is negative feedback | the output shuts off original effects of stimulus or reduces intensity |
| What is homeostatic imbalance | a disturbance or when the usual negative feedback mechanisms are overwhelmed and destructive positive feedback mechanisms take over. normally results in disease |
| What are functional divisions of the body | axial and appendicular parts |
| What are the planes of the body | sagittal, frontal and transverse |
| Mental | chin |
| Axillary | arm pits |
| Umbilical | abdominal region |
| Acromial | Bone at top of shoulder |
| Brachial | upper arm |
| antebrachial | forearm |
| antecubital | anterior portion of elbow (in between the upper and lower arm) |
| Olecranal | elbow |
| carpal | wrist |
| What is positive feedback | the result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerated |
| Coxal | hip |
| femoral | thigh |
| patellar | kneecap |
| tarsal | ankle |
| popliteal | back of knee |
| crural | leg |
| digital | fingers and toes |
| plantar | bottom of foot |
| calcaneal | heel of foot |
| inguinal | groin |
| scapular | shoulder blade area |
| vertebral | spinal region |
| cervical | neck |
| otic | ear |
| Different body cavities | dorsal body cavity: cranial cavity and vertebral (spinal) cavity Ventral body cavity: thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity Oral and digestive body cavities Nasal cavity Orbital cavity Middle ear cavity Synovial cavity |
| Forms of energy | Chemical energy electrical energy radiant/ electromagnetic cavity |
| Kinetic energy | energy in action |
| Potential energy | inactive energy that has the potential to do work |
| What is a mixture | substances composed of two or more components physically intermixed |
| What is a solution | homogeneous mixtures of components that may be gases, liquids or solids |
| What is a solvent | substance present in the greatest amount (dissolving medium) |
| What is a solute | Substances present in smaller amounts |
| What is a molecule? | combination of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds |
| What is a compound? | When two different kinds of atoms bind, they form molecules of a compound |
| Types of mixtures | Solution Colloid Suspension |
| What is a solution | Solute particles are very tiny, do not settle out or scatter light |
| What is a colloid | the solute particles are larger than in a solution and scatter light. they do not settle out |
| What is a suspension | Solute particles are very large, settle out and may scatter light |
| What is an ionic bond | chemical bond between atoms formed by transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to the other |
| What is an anion | Atom gains one or more electrons, called electron acceptor. acquires net negative charge. |
| What is a covalent bond | Electrons are shared between atoms |
| What is a polar molecule | unequal electron sharing of atoms |
| What are factors that induce the rate of chemical reactions | temperature concentration particle size catalysts |
| What is the most important and abundant inorganic compound in living material | water |
| What are electrolytes | substances that conduct an electrical current in solution. all ions are electrolytes |
| What are hydrogen bonds | form when a hydrogen atom is already covalently linked to one electronegative atom, is attracted by another electron-hungry atom, so a bridge forms between them |
| What is an acid | sour taste. a substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts.also defined as proton donors |
| What occurs when an acid is put into water | acid dissolves and releases hydrogen ions (protons) and anions |
| What determines the acidity of a solution | the concentration of protons, NOT the anions |
| What is the highest acidity on the pH scale? | 0-hydrochloric acid |
| What is an cation | Atom loses an electron and is an electron donor. aquires net positive charge |
| What is a buffer | resists abrupt and large swings in the pH of the body fluids |
| What is the neutral number on the pH scale | 7 |
| How does a buffer resist changes to pH in the body | releases hydrogen ions (acting as acids) when the pH rises and binding hydrogen ions (acting as bases) when the pH drops |
| What is a nonpolar molecule | shared electrons are equally shared and the molecules are electrically balanced |
| What properties does water have | high heat capacity high heat of vaporization polar solvent properties reactivity cushioning |
| What is a base | bitter taste, proton acceptors. take up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts |
| What are organic compounds unique to living systems | carbohydrates lipids (fats) proteins nucleic acids ALL contain carbon that is why they are organic compounds |
| What are carbohydrates | group of molecules that include sugars and starches contains: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen |
| What is the most basic on the pH scale | 14-sodium hydroxide |
| How are carbohydrates classified | according to size and solubility: monosaccharide: one sugar polysaccaride: many sugars disaccharide: two sugars |
| What are the building blocks for other carbohydrates | monosaccharides are the monomers, or building blocks |
| When the carbohydrate is larger what is it's solubility in water | the larger the molecule, the less soluble it is in water |
| Types of monosaccharides | glucose fructose galactose deoxyribose ribose |
| What is a disaccharide? | double sugar, formed when two monosaccahrides are joined by dehydration synthesis. In the synthesis reaction, a water molecule is lost |
| Types of disaccharides | sucrose lactose maltose |
| How are disaccharides absorbed from the digestive tract into the blood | they are too large to pas thru cell membranes. must be digested to their simple sugar units via hydrolysis (reverse of dehydration synthesis). A water molecule is added to each bond, breaking the bonds and releasing simple sugars |
| What are carbohydrate functions in the body | provides a ready easily used source of cellular fuel |
| What are exergonic reactions | reactions that release energy |
| What are polysaccharides | polymers of simple sugars linked together by dehydration synthesis. Fairly large, insoluble molecules and therefore ideal for storing products |
| What are lipids | insoluble but dissolve readily in other lipids and organic solvents like alcohol and ether |
| What is an hydrolysis synthesis | a water molecule is added to each bond, breaking the bonds and releasing the simple sugar units |
| Types of lipids | triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids and other lipiod substances |
| What is oxidation-reduction recations | aka redox reactions. decomposition reactions in that they are the basis of all reactions in which food fuels are broken down for energy |
| What is a dehydration synthesis | when small molecules are formed into larger molecules, a water molecule is removed for every bond formed |
| Why are oxidation-reduction reactions a special type of reaction | it exchanges electrons between the reactants |
| What is oxidized | the reactant losing the electron is referred to as the electron donor |
| What do all lipids contain | carbon hydrogen oxygen (lower than amount in carbohydrates) |
| What are endergonic reactions | reactions contain more potential energy in their chemical bonds than did the reactants.energy absorbing |
| What are triglycerides | neutral fats, commonly known as fats when solid. known as oils when liquid. Made up of two types of building blocks: fatty acids and glycerol |
| What does fat synthesis involve | attaching three fatty acid chains to a single glycerol molecule by dehydration synthesis |
| What are saturated fats | fatty acid chains with only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms |
| What are unsaturated fats | fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms |
| What is reduced | reactant taking up transferred electrons called proton acceptor |
| What are phospolipids | modified triglycerides. tail is nonpolar and interacts with inly nonpolar molecules. the head is polar and attracts other polar or charged particles such as water or ions |
| What provides the bodies most efficient and compact form of stored energy | triglycerides when oxidized |
| What are steroids | flat molecules made from 4 interlocking hydrocarbon rings. fat soluble and contain little oxygen |
| What is the most important steroid | cholesterol |
| Where is cholesterol found | cell membranes, raw material for synthesis of vitamin D, steroid hormones and bile salts |
| What are steroids vital to | homeostasis....without sex hormones- no reproduction and without corticosteroids produced by adrenal glands-could eb fatal |
| What are the cheif material for building cellular membranes | phospholipids |
| What lipids are important in the rgulation of blood pressure, inflammation, blood clotting and labor contractions | eicosanoids |
| What lipid participates in the transport of lipids in plasma and is prevelent in nervous tissue | phospolipids |
| How are triglycerides formed | three fatty acid chains are bound to glycerol by dehydration synthesis |
| What are inorganic compounds | water salts acids bases |
| What are organic compounds | carbohydrates lipids proteins nucleic acids |
| What constitiues organic compounds | contain carbon |
| What are proteins | basic structural material of the body but not all are structural material. Some proteins play vital roles in cell function. they are polypeptides containing 50 or more amino acids |
| What do all proteins contain | carbon oxygen hydrogen nitrogen many contain: sulfur and phosphorus as well |
| What proteins have the most varied functions of any molecules in the body | enzymes (biological catalysts) hemoglobin of the blood contractile proteins of the muscle |
| What are the building blocks of proteins | amino acids joined together by dehydration synthesis |
| What are the two important functional groups of amino acids | amine group organic acid group |
| What makes amino acids chemically unique | the R group |
| Amino acids can act as both an _________ or a ___________ | acid-proton donor base-proton acceptor |
| What is a peptide bond | bond joining the amine group of an amino acid to the acid carboxyl group of a second amino acid via dehydration synthesis. |
| What are macromolecules | large, complex molecules that contain from 100 to over 100,000 amino acids |
| What are the structural level of proteins | 1. primary 2. secondary 3. tertiary 4. quaternary |
| What are fibrous proteins | cheif building materials of the body, also known as structural proteins |
| What are globular proteins | called functional proteins. water-soluble and play important role in virturally all biological processes |
| What is denatured | proteins unfold due to hydrogen bonds breaking when the pH drops or the temp rises |
| Function of plasma membrane | external cell barrier acts in transport of substances into or out of cell maintains resting potential essential for functioning of excitable cells contains receptors for communication forms intracellular connections acts as a physical barrier to enclose cell contents regulates material movement in and out of cell |
| Structure of plasma membrane | phospoholipid bilayer that contains cholesterol and proteins (intergral and peripheral) and some carbohydrates(externally) |
| What is the phospholipid bilayer | two parallel sheets of phospholipid molecules lying tail to tail. has a polar head which is charged and hydrophilic and a tail which is uncharged, nonploar and is hydrophobic |
| function of cytoplasm | place of many metabolic processes of the cell store nutrients and dissolved solutes |
| What does the cytoplasm consist of | organelles cytosol inclusions |
| function of cytosol | provides support for organelles serves as viscious medium through which diffusion occurs |
| function of inclusions | stores materials: nutrients, wastes, and cell products |
| structure of inclusions | droplets of melanin, protein, glycogen granules or lipid; usually non membrane bound |
| function of mitochondira | powerhouse of cell site of ATP synthesis |
| structure of mitochondira | rodlike, double membrane structures, inner membrane folded into projections called cristae |
| function of ribosomes | site of protein synthesis |
| how are ribosomes formed | two subunits are formed in nucleus, then they assembled in the cytosol |
| function of rough ER | -synthesizes proteins for secretion, new proteins for plasma membrane and lysosomal enzymes -transports and stores molecules -sugar groups are attached to proteins within the cristernae -proteins are bound within vesicles for transport to the golgi and other site -external face synthesizes phospholipids |
| Structure of rough ER | flattened network of membrane sacs called the cisternae, coils through cytoplasm externally studded with ribosomes |
| function of smooth ER | site of lipid and steroid synthesis lipid metabolism drug and alcohol detoxification |
| structure of smooth ER | interconnected network of membrane tubules and vesicles, no ribosomes |
| function of lysosomes | site of intracellular digestion removes old or damaged organelles autolyze (self destruct) |
| function of peroxisomes | enzymes detoxify a number of toxic substances most important enzyme, catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water during metabolism |
| function of microtubules | supports cell give cell shape involved in intracellular and cellular movement forms centrioles, cilia and flagella,if present |
| function of microfilaments | involved in muscle contraction and other types of intracellular movement help form the cytoskeleton separates dividing cells |
| function of intermediate filaments | resist mechanical forces acting on cell provides structural support and stabilizes cell junctions |
| structure of microfilaments | actin protein monomers formed into filaments |
| structure of microtubules | cylindrical structures made of tubulin proteins |
| structure of intermediate filaments | protein fibers |
| fucntion of centrioles | organize microtubule network during mitosis to form spindle and asters. forms bases of cilia and flagella |
| fucntion of cilia | coordinated movement creates unidirectional current that propels substances across cell surface |
| fucntion of flagella | propels cell; sperm |
| function of microvilli | increases surface area for absorption |
| function of nucleoli | site of ribosome subunit manufacture synthesizes rRNA |
| Where are glycolipids found | outer plasma membrane of a cell |
| what is an isotonic solution | cells retain normal shape and size same solute/water concentration outside and inside of the cell water moves in and out |
| what are membrane junctions | act to bind cells together |
| types of junctions | tight junctions desmosomes gap junctions |
| what is a hypotonic solution | takes on water by osmosis until cell becomes bloated then bursts has a higher concentration of solutes inside the cell than outside the cell |
| function of desmosomes | anchoring junctions bind neighboring cells together distributes tension throughout cellular sheet and reduces chance of tearing when subjected to pulling forces |
| function of tight junctions | impermeable junction that encircles cell can be leaky and may allow certain types of ions to pass |
| functions of gap junctions | communicating junction between cells cells are connected by hollow cylinders called connexons |
| What are tasks performed by membrane proteins | transport receptors for signal transduction attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix enzymatic activity intercellular joining cell-cell recognition |
| What is passive transport | substances move across membrane without any energy input from the cell |
| what is active transport | cell provides metabolic energy (ATP) needed to move substances across membrane |
| what are the main types of passive transport | diffusion and filtration |
| what is diffusion | molecules or ions move from an area of high to an area of low concentration, that is down or along their concentration gradient |
| what is the driving force of diffusion | kinetic energy of the molecules themselves |
| what is the speed of diffusion influenced by | molecule size- the smaller molecule, the faster it is temerature- the warmer, the faster it is |
| during diffusion, what happens when equilibrium is reached in a closed container | molecules move equally in each direction ( no net movement) |
| What is a hypertonic solution | Cell shrinks due to water loss by osmosis lower concentration of solutes inside than outside the cell |
| what constitues a molecule to diffuse through the plasma membrane | 1. lipid soluble 2. small enough to pass thru mem channels 3. or assisted by carrier molecule |
| what is simple diffusion | nonpolar and lipid soluble substances diffuse directly thru lipid bilayer |
| examples of substances that diffuse thru the membrane via simple diffusion | oxygen, carbon dioxide and fat soluble vitamins |
| where does oxygen diffuse into and from where | since oxygen concentration is higher in blood than in the tissue cells, oxygen continuosly diffuses from the blood into the cells |
| where does carbon dioxide diffuse into and from where | since carbon dioxide has a higher concentration within cells, it diffuses from tissue cells into the blood |
| what is a concentration gradient | when ions or molecules move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration |
| what is facilitated diffusion | certain molecules are unable to pass thru the lipid bilayer, instead they move passively thru the membrane by facilitated diffusion in which the transported substance either binds to protein carriers in the membrane and are ferried across or they move thru water filled protein channels |
| what are carriers | transmembrane intergral proteins that show specificity for molecules of a certain polar substance or class of substances that are too large to pass thru membrane channels |
| examples of molecules which use facilitated diffusion | glucose and other sugars, some amino acids and ions |
| what are the steps involved in carrier-mediated diffusion | binding of a substrate changes the shape of the carrier allow it to envelop and then release the substance which shields it from the nonpolar regions of the membrane |
| what is channel mediated diffusion | transmembrane proteins that serve to transport substances through aqueous channels from one side of the membrane to the other |
| different types of channels | leakage channels gated or controlled channels |
| what are leakage channels | always open and allow ion and water fluxes according to concentration gradients |
| what are gated or controlled channels | opened and closed by various chemical or electrical signals, passive transport, along the concentration gradient |
| When a substance crosses the membrane by simple diffusion how is the rate of diffusion controlled | it is not controllable because the lipid solubility of the membrane isn't immediately changable |
| what is osmosis | diffusion of a solvent such as water thru selective permeable membrane |
| what are water specific channels constructed by transmembrane proteins called | aquaporins |
| where are aquaporins abundant | found in most all cell types, abundant in red blood cells and cells involved in water balance (kidney tubule cells) |
| When a substance crosses the membrane by facilitated diffusion how is the rate of diffusion controlled | controlled because the permeability of the membrane can be altered by regulating the activity or number of individual carriers or channels |
| when does osmosis occur | when water concentration differs on the two sides of the membrane |
| what occurs if distilled water is on both sides of a membrane | no net osmosis occurs even tho water molecules move in both directions thru the membrane |
| what happens to the water concentration when the solute concentration on the two sides of the membrane are different | water concentration differs as well because as the solute concentration increases, the water concentration decreases |
| what constitues the decrease of water concentration by solutes | depends on the number of solute particles because one solute molecule or ion displaces a one water molecule |
| what is the definition of osmolarity | total concentration of all solute particles in a solution |
| what passive transports occur directly thru the plasma membrane and are not selective processes | simple diffusion and osmosis |
| what constitutes whether a molecule can pass thru a plasma membrane in simple diffusion and osmosis | its size or solubility in lipids |
| What passive transport system is highly selective | facilitated diffusion |
| what are types of active transport | solute pumps primary and secondary active transport vesticular transport |
| what does active transport require (two things) | energy (ATP) carrier proteins that combine specifically and reversibly with the transported substances |
| Difference between active and passive transport? | passive- no energy input from cell required, follows concentration gradient active-requires ATP and moves against concentration gradient |
| in primary active transport where does the energy come from | directly from hydrolysis of ATP |
| in secondary active transport where does the energy come from | indirectly from by energy stored in ionic gradients created by operation of primary active transport |
| what occurs in primary active transport | hydrolysis of ATP results in phosphorylation of the transport protein which causes the protein to change shape in a manner so that it pumps the bound solute across the membrane |
| types of primary active transport | sodium potassium pump calcium and hydrogen pumps |
| steps of sodium potassium pump | 1. cytoplasmic Na+ binds to the pump protein 2. binding of Na+ promotes phosphorylation of the protein by ATP 3. phosphorylation causes the protein to change shape, expelling Na+ to the outside of the cell 4. extracellular K+ binds to pump protein 5. K+ binding triggers release of phosphate. pump protein returns to original conformation 6. K+ is released from pump protein and Na+ sites are ready to bind Na+ again 7. cycle repeats |
| In the body what is the concentration of potassium K+ | inside: 10 times higher than outside of the cell |
| In the body what is the concentration of sodium Na+ | outside: 10 times higher than inside of cell |
| what are the ionic concentration differences of Na+ and K+ essential for | excitable cells like muscle and nerve cells to function normally and for all body cells to maintain normal fluid level |
| what is one pump that can drive the secondary active transport | a single ATP powered pump, like the sodium-potassium pump can indirectly drive the secondary active transport of several other solutes |
| steps involved in secondary active transport | 1. ATP-driven Na+-K+ pump stores energy by creating a steep concentration gradient for Na+ entry into the cell 2. as Na+ diffuses back across the membrane thru a membrane cotransporter protein, it drives glucose against its concentration gradient into the cell |
| what is vesicular transport | fluids containing large particles and small particles are transported across cell membranes inside membranous sacs called vesicles |
| what is exocytosis | ejects substances from the cell interior to the extracellular fluid |
| what is transcytosis | moving substances into, across and then outside the cell |
| what is vesticular trafficking | moving substances from one area (organelle) to another |
| steps involved in endocytosis | 1. coated pit ingests substance 2. protein vesicle detaches 3. coat proteins detach and are recycled to plasma membrane 4. uncoated vesicle fuses with a sorting vesicle called an endosome 5. transport vesicle containing membrane components moves to the plasma membrane for recycling 6. fused vesicle may either fuse with lysosome for digestion of its contents or deliver its contents to the plasma membrane on the opposite side of the cell (transcytosis) |
| Different types of endocytosis | phagocytosis pinocytosis receptor-mediated endocytosis |
| what is phagocytosis | cell engulfs some relatively large or solid material, like bacteria, cell debris or inanimate particles. the cell "eats" the particles |
| what is endocytosis | cell ingests small patches of the plasma membrane and moves substances from the cell exterior to the interior of the cell |
| what happens in phagocytosis | particle binds to cells receptor, pseudopods form and flow around the particle and engulf it. usually it then fuses with a lysosome and its contents are digested |
| what are considered experts at phagocytosis | macrophages and certain white blood cells |
| what is pinocytosis | "cell drinking" |
| steps of pinocytosis | a bit of infolding plasma membrane which begins as a clathrin-coated pit, surrounds a small volume of extracellular fluid containing dissolved molecules. the droplet enters the cell and fuses with an endosome. |
| why is pinocytosis important | important in cells that absorb nutrients like cells that line the intestines |
| what is receptor-mediated endocytosis | main mechanism for specific endocytosis and transcytosis of most macromolecules by body cells. equisitely selective. |
| steps involved in receptor-mediated endocytosis | extracellular substances bind to specific receptors proteins in regions of coated pits, enables cells to ingest and concentrate specific substances (ligands) in protein coated vesicles. ligands may be simply released inside cell or combined with a lysosome to digest contents. receptors are recycled to the plasma membrane in vesicles |
| what type(s) of endocytosis bind to receptors | phagocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis |
| what are the steps involved with exocytosis | 1. membrane bound vesicle migrates to plasma membrane 2. there, proteins at vesicle surface (v-SNARE's) bind with t-SNARES's (plasma membrane proteins) 3. the vesicle and plasma membrane fuse and a pore opens up 4. vesicle contents released to exterior of cell |
| What is the purpose of converting DNA to RNA | because DNA cannot be used without a decoder and it cannot move outside the nucleus, therefore it needs a decoder and messenger which is RNA |
| types of RNA | mRNA-messenger RNA tRNA-transfer RNA rRNA-ribosomal RNA |
| what is translation | information carried by the mRNA is decoded and used to assemble polypeptides |
| what two things must occur to mRNA before translation can begin but after transcription has taken place | -before the newly made RNA can be used as a messenger, it must be processed or edited (sections corresponding to introns must be removed or spliced) -also a number of specific RNA binding proteins, mRNA complex proteins must become associated with it |
| What are the mRNA complex proteins responsible for before the mRNA can continue with translation | guide its export from nucleus, determine its localization, translation and stability and it checks for premature termination codons |
| what mechanism allows cells to concentrate material that is only present in small amounts in the extracellular fluid | receptor-mediated endocytosis |
| what is transcription | DNA's information is decoded into mRNA |
| phases involved in transcription | 1. initiation 2. elongation 3. termination |
| How does transcription start | gene activating chemicals called transcription factors stimulate the loosening of the histones at the site-to-be of gene transcription and then bind to the promoter |
| what is RNA polymerase and it's function | enzyme that oversees the synthesis of mRNA, correctly at the promoter. then RNA polymermase can initiate transcription |
| what are the major steps involving protein synthesis | transcription and translation |
| steps during transcription | 1. initiation: RNA polymerase pulls apart DNA strands so transcription can begin at start point in promoter 2. elongation: using incoming RNA nucleotides as substrates, RNA polymerase aligns them with comp. DNA bases and then links them together. As RNA polymerase elongates the mRNA strand, it unwinds the DNA strand in front of it and rewinds the helix behind it 3. Termination: when polymerase reaches special base sequence called termination signal, transcription ends and the newly formed mRNA pulls off DNA template |
| What is the promoter | special DNA sequence that contains start point. specifies where mRNA synthesis start and which DNA strand will serve as the template strand |
| what happens during translation | the language of nucleic acids (base sequence) is translated into the language of proteins (amino acids) |
| what is the genetic code | rules by which the basic sequence of a gene is translated into an amino acid sequence |
| how many amino acids are there | 20 |
| what is a codon | three-base sequence of DNA or the corresponding three-base sequence of mRNA |
| How many neucleotides are there | 4 of RNA (or DNA) |
| how many possible codons are there | 4 to the third power, or 64 (three of them are stop codons) |
| where does translation take place and what kind(s) of RNA are involved | in cytoplasm tRNA, mRNA and rRNA |
| events of translation | 1. after mRNA synthesis in nucleus, mRNA leaves the nucleus and attaches to a ribosome 2. translation begins as incoming aminoacyl-tRNA recognizes the complementary codon calling for it at the A site on the ribosome. it hydrogen bonds to the codon via its anticodon 3. as the ribosome moves along the mRNA, each codon is read in sequence, a new amino acid is added to the growing protein chain and the tRNA in the A site is translocated to the P site 4. once its amino acid is released from the P site, tRNA is ratcheted to the E site and then released to recenter the cytoplasmic pool, ready to be recharged with a new amino acid. the polypeptide is completed when the stop codon is read |
| how are epithelial cells classified | cell layers and shapes of cells |
| what are the different types of epithelial cells classified by layers | stratified and simple |
| different shapes of epithelial cells | squamous cuboidal columnar |
| different types of tissues found in the body | epithelial tissue muscle tissue nervous tissue connective tissue |
| what is epithelial tissue | sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity |
| functions of epithelial tissue | protection absorption filtration secretion sensory reception excretion |
| function of simple squamous epithelium | allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important |
| locations of simple squamous epithelium | kidney glomeruli air sacs of lungs lining of heart, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels lining of the ventral cavity |
| functions of simple cuboidal epithelium | secretion and absorption |
| location of simple cuboidal epithelium | kidney tubules, ducts, secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface |
| function of simple columnar epithelium | absorption secretion of mucus, enzymes and other substances ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action |
| location of simple columnar epithelium | nonciliated type: lines most digestive tract (stomach to anal canal), gallbladder and excretory ducts and some glands ciliated: lines small bronchi, uterine tubes and some regions of nucleus |
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