Science Final Exam Combo

Terms	Definitions
Bacteria are about _____ times smaller than eukaryotic cells.	1,000
Bacteria are roughly the size of an animal ________.	mitochondrion
What are the seven important roles of bacteria?	1. Bacteria , like actinomycetes, produce antibiotics such as streptomycin. 2. They live symbiotically in the guts of animals and humans and aid the digestive process. 3. They live symbiotically on the roots of legumes, converting gaseous nitrogen to solid nitrates. 4. Bacteria play an important role in the production of yogurt and sourdough bread. 5. They help to break down dead organic matter. 6. They make up the base of the food web in many environments. 7. They are involved in the decomposition of dead plants and animals.
When did bacteria evolve?	3.5 billion years ago
What are the 6 things the help in the prevention and control of AIDS?	1. sexual behavior 2. drug use 3. health care workers 4. AZT 5. other recent drugs 6. Vaccine
Total _________ is the surest way to avoid getting infected with HIV.	abstinence
What is the estimated rate of failure for condoms?	2-10%
Can alcohol cloud one's judgement?	yes
When are you more likely to have sex? alcohol or drugs?	alcohol
What do you clean used needles with?	bleach
Nurses and doctors must take proper ___________.	precautions
What does AZT stand for?	azidothymine
What has azidothymine shown?	that it significantly lowers the number of virions in an infected host
What are 3 other recent drugs?	Amprenavir Crixian Epivir
What are two protease inhibitors?	Amprenavir Crixian
What is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor?	Epivir
__________ developed against _____ and _____ have shown great promise.	Vaccines, SIV, FIV
What is the vaccines role?	to prevent infection
1st way that HIV can destroy T4-cells.	1. Destroys the T4-cells by destroying the cell membrane to release the virus.
2nd way that HIV can destroy T4-cells.	2. The production of viral genes and proteins can interfere with the normal functioning of T-4 cells.
3rd way that HIV can destroy T4-cells.	3. HIV can also indirectly cause the death of the T-4 cell. After it infects the T4-cells, it leaves the gp-120 receptor protein on the cell membrane of the T4-cell. So now the infected T4-cell binds to other uninfected cells forming a synctium (mass of cells). These cells die shortly after they are formed.
Bacteria	Unicellular, Prokaryotic cells
Bacteria appeared when?	3.5 billion years ago
Bacteria are roughly the same size as a _______	Animal Mitochondrion 1000 times smaller than human cells
where are bacteria found?	EVERYWHERE...really?.....the center of the sun?...........take that Deepak!!!!! MUAHAHAHAHA
Actinomycetes	A branching bacteria that produces an antibiotic called streptomycin
Symbiotically	One organism living with another, helping each other
Where do bacteria live symbiotically?	root tips of legumes guts of animals places...?
When bacteria are on the root tips of legumes what do they do?	They take gaseous nitrogen and convert it to usable solid nitrates
Bacteria play an important role in the production of what two things?	yogurt and sourdough bread
What do bacteria break down?	dead organic matter
What do bacteria make up the base of?	the food web in many environments
What are bacteria involved in with decomposition?	of dead plants and animals
Do bacteria lack a membrane bound nucleus?	YES!!!!!!!!!!!!!
What two divisions are prokaryotes grouped in?	monera and archae
What are some examples of prokaryotic cells?	bacteria (really???), methenogenic archaen, and cyanobacteria which are also known as blue green algae
What are the structures of bacteria?	pili bacterial DNA plasmid flagella cell membrane (innermost) cell wall (middle) *capsule (outermost)
What are two nitrogen fixers?	nitrobacter and rhizobium
What is the plant cell wall made up of?	cellulose
What is the bacterial cell wall made up of?	peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan	a complex mesh like layer made up of sugar and proteins
Based on the thickness of peptidoglycan and how it reacts to crystal violet stain, bacteria are classified into _________ and __________.	gram-positive and gram-negative
Which peptidoglycan layer is thicker?	in gram positive bacteria
Which gram hold the violet stain?	gram positive
Which gram appears red? Why?	gram negative, because a counter stain saffranin is added during the staining process
Flagella	extracellular structures that help in the mobility of bacteria
Many species of ____, _____, and some _______ move with help of flagella.	rods, spiralla, cocci
How do flagella move?	with a propeller like rotation that drives the bacterium forward
How long can flagella be?	10-20 micrometers
How thick is flagella?	2 micrometers
Pili	small hair-like structures that help bacterial attachment to other bacterial cells
What is an example of bacteria that uses pili to anchor?	Neisseria gonorrhea
Saccharin	a sugar
Capsule	a layer of polysaccharides and proteins that form outermost covering
Where is the capsule found?	in many species of bacilli and cocci
Where is the capsule not found?	spiral bacteria
What does the capsule give the bacteria?	gives bacteria an extra layer of protection, which helps prevent phagocytosis helps bacteria attach to other cell and inanimate objects
What if there is Streptococcus mutans?	the capsule helps attach to the teeth and attract food and other cell forming dental plaque
Are bacteria that have a capsule more likely to cause disease than bacteria that don't?	yes
Where is the bacterial DNA present?	in the cytoplasm in a super coiled structure
Bacterial plasmid	small circular extra-chromosomal DNA that is not a part of the chromosomal DNA of bacteria
What are the bacterial plasmids capable of? Where are they present?	replicating independently, present in all bacteria and some eukaryotic cells
Endospores	heat resistant, non-reproductive, dehydrated, dormant cells
What type of bacteria produce these(Broad)?	Gram-Positive
What genus(s) of bacteria make endospores?	Clostridium and Bacillus
At what times do these bacteria turn into endospores?	In Unfavorable conditions
When bacteria decide to turn into endospores what happen?	They produce a thick internal wall that encloses The DNA and the cytoplasm
At what times do endospores come out of dormancy, and reproduce to make more active cells?	Conducive or favorable
What can endospores resist?	High temperatures, soaps, chemicals, lysozymes and extreme coldness, 70% ethyl alcohol, and over 100 Degrees Celsius
Where are endospores usually found?	Soil, water and sometimes Egyptian mummies
What are the four major human diseases caused by endospore formers?	Anthrax, Botulism(food poisoning), Gas Gangrene and tetanus
What is anthrax caused by? The other three diseases?	1. Bacillus Anthracis, which is airborne 2. Clostridium
What are bacteria classified by?	Morphology/shape, Requirement of oxygen, staining method and nutrition
What are the three shapes bacteria are classified into?	Rod, sphere, and spiral
Rod shaped bacteria are called?, and are further classified into?	1.Bacillus (plural: Bacilli) 2.bacillus, streptobacillus, coccobacillus, club shaped rods, and branching rods
Baccilus	Single, rod shaped bacteria. Ex: E. Col
Streptobacillus	rod-shaped bacteria arranged into chains
Streptobacillus moniliformis	A type of streptobacilli that causes fever through rat bites
Club shaped bacteria	rod shaped bacteria, where one end bulges like a club
Corynebacteria diphtheriae	Club, shaped bacteria that causes diphtheria
Branching rods	rod-shaped bacteria which have a branching network like fungal hyphae
Actinomyces naeslundii	Branching rod bacterium that causes oral cavities
Coccobacillus	short rod shaped bacteria that are slightly rounded
Haemophilus influenzae	a coccobacillli that causes bacterial influenza
Spherical bacteria	are called coccus(plural:cocci), divided into, based on # and arrangement into monococcus, diplococcus, streptococcus, and staphylococcus
Diplococcus	spherical shaped bacteria that occurs in pairs
Neisseria gonorrhea	spherical shaped bacteria that occurs in pairs, causes gonorrhea
Streptococcus	spherical bacterium that occurs in chains
Streptococcus pyogenes	spherical bacterium that occurs in chains, causes strep throat
Staphylococcus	spherical bacterium that occurs in clumps
Staphylococcus aureus	spherical bacterium that occurs in clumps, causes impetigo, a skin infection
Spiral shaped bacteria	Spiral or coiled shaped bacteria, further divided into vibrio, spirillum, and spirochete
Vibrio	Spiral shaped bacteria that looks like a twisted rod in the shape of a comma or crescent moon
Vibrio cholerae	Spiral shaped bacteria that looks like a twisted rod in the shape of a comma or crescent moon, causes cholera, a water borne gastrointestinal disease
Spirillum	Spiral bacteria that is thick and has a flexible spiral
Spirillum minus	Spiral bacteria that is thick and has a flexible spiral, causes rat bite fever, a disease caused by a rat bite
Spirochete	spiral bacteria that is thin and has a rigid spiral like a corkscrew
Treponema pallidum	spiral bacteria that is thin and has a rigid spiral like a corkscrew, causes syphilis
Oxygen requirement	Bacteria are also classified based on requirement for oxygen into aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative
Aerobic	Bacteria that need oxygen to live and reproduce * there are two kind a of aerobic bacteria *Facultative Aerobic, and Obligate Aerobic
Facultative Aerobic/Anaerobic	Can survive in the presence and absence of oxygen *If there is no oxygen they can derive there energy from fermentation
Obligate aerobic	Can only grow and reproduce in the presence of oxygen
Anaerobic	Bacteria that grow and reproduce i n the absence of oxygen *These are usually found in deep oceans or under the surface of the earth
Obligate anaerobic bacteria	Die in the presence of oxygen, only survive in places with no oxygen.
Why do Obligate anaerobes die in the presence of oxygen?	Because they lack the enzyme to convert superoxide
Superoxide	A lethal substance produced due to the presence of oxygen
What do Obligate Anaerobes use to produce energy to reproduce and grow?	Sulfate
Classification based on gram staining	Bacteria are classified based on gram staining Depends on the chemical properties of the cell wall Some bacteria have a thin cell wall, others large
What colors are gram negative/positive bacteria after staining?Why?	Gram-Positive=Purple, they retain the dominant stain color since there cell wall is thick Gram-Negative=Less dominant red, since there cell wall is thin
Which type of bacteria is more infectious,?	Gram-Negative
Classification based on nutrition	One of the most important ways to classify bacteria, because it takes into account the requirements for growth and multiplication. *based on how bacteria obtain carbon/sugar, they are classified into autotrophic, and heterotrophic
Autotrophic	Uses inorganic, substances and coverts them to organic substances * 2 kind of autotrophic bacteria, photoautotrophic Chemoautotrophic
Photoautotrophic	Use sunlight to produce organic compounds Ex: Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria	A photoautotrophic bacteria, that is found almost anywhere from oceans, fresh water to rocks to soil
Chemoautotrophic	Synthesizes organic compounds from inorganic compounds
Thiobacillus	A chemoautotrophic bacterium that produces energy by converting hydrogen sulfide to sulfur
Heterotrophic Bacteria	Obtain organic substances from the environment they live in They can obtain organic substances from the cells, tissues or organism where they are present categorized into saphrophytic bacteria, symbiotic, and parasitic bacteria
Saphrophytic bacteria	Break down dead plants and animals to obtain organic compounds Release enzymes that break down complex organic compounds to simple nutrients which they absorb for growth and reproduction During the breakdown they release energy play an important role as in the ecosystem as decomposers If not for these we would be knee-deep in trash
Symbiotic Bacteria	Live in a mutually beneficial relationship with another organism *Ex: Rhizobium/legumes, E. coli/human intestines Bacteria that live in cow's stomachs that break down cellulose
Rhizobium	Symbiotic bacteria that lives in the roots of legumes where it converts gaseous nitrogen to a solid and forms nitrogen compounds like ammonia and nitrates legumes use these compounds for its nitrogen requirement , which is the most important thing for plants in turn the plant gives the bacterium shelter
Non-Pathogenic E.coli	Lives in alimentary canal of humans, which keep other harmful bacteria in check and play a role in the production of the vitamin B12
Parasitic Bacterium	Live in the tissues of plants, animals, and humans. These bacteria cause disease, they release toxins to extract nutrients from the host cell, after which the tissues are destroyed
Asexual reproduction	Bacteria reproduce asexually by a process called binary fission. this requires on cell to produce 2 cells. Generally bacteria reproduce every 20 minutes, if enough food, optimum temperature and no toxins are present, but it widely varies
Mycobacterium tuberculosis	18 Minutes
Staphylococcus	30 minutes
Some random bacteria that causes syphilis	33 hours
E.coli	20 minutes
Binary Fission	The DNA replicates, and the cytoplasm splits, then the cell membrane and cell wall pinch inward at the center of the cell. Then the cell splits into two identical cells
Bacterial Sexual reproduction	Bacteria do produce sexually, though there is no formation of sex cells and/or zygote there is just the transfer of part of the DNA from one cell to another *categorized into transformation , transduction, and conjugation
Transformation	where one bacterium is completely changed from one to another, the DNA from one bacteria is transferred to another first discovered in streptococcus mutans A non-virulent strain of streptococcus pneumoniae was transformed to virulent one when it was exposed to a virulent strain th
Conjugation	Where DNA from one bacteria is transferred to another through physical contact. The bacteriathat transfers the DNA is called the Donor and the one that receives it is called the recipeint *when they tousck a bridge is formed for the DNA to transfer, this is how plasmid DNA that is resistant to antibiotics is transferred from one bacterium to anotheranother
Bacterial growth curve	Bacteria show a distinct growth curve, a 4 phase pattern: Lag, log, stationary, decline phase
Lag Phase	Bacterial multiplication is very slow as they are getting used to the environment, within the body they might be engulfed by white blood cells
Log Phase	They Begin to reproduce exponentially faster
Stationary phase	the amount of nutrients decrease, and the waste products and toxins and Carbon dioxide are increasing. the energy in the cells decrease and they reproduce slower Rate of death and reproduction equalize
Decline phase	the death rates exceed rapidly as the nutrients are depleted and toxins increase
How many species of plants are there?	Over 275,000 (that's alot)
When did plants start to evolve?	500 million years ago,(about 2002)
Earliest known plant fossils	Psilophytes
Cooksonia	Psilophytes, earliest plant fossil found, 400 million years old (about 2001 or so)
What is one of the earliest vascular plants?	Cooksonia
Does cooksonia have a leafless stem?	yes
What did plants evolve from?	filamentous green algae that lived in ancient oceans
What do both algae and plants have in common?	they both have cellulose in their cell wall they store excess food as starch *they use the same type of chlorophyll to photosynthesize
What parts of filamentous green alga are involved in photosynthesis?	all of the parts
In land plants, what part of the plant are usually the organs of photosynthesis?	the leaves
What is required for photosynthesis?	water, dissolved minerals, and sunlight
Why do plants depend on the soil?	because that is where they get their nutrient and water requirements
Where do plants absorb water and nutrients?	in the roots
What are three functions of roots?	1. absorb water and nutrients 2. anchor the plants to the ground 3. some roots are used as storage organs
What are some plants that use storage organs?	carrots and radishes
Where is the food sent to after photosynthesis?	to the roots
What are four functions of stems?	1. keep the plant upright 2. store excess food 3. green stems can conduct photosynthesis 4. contains tissues that help in the transportation of food
What are plants broadly classified on?	the presence or absence of transport system of intracellular elongated tubes that transport water and nutrients
Based on this, how are plants classified?	vascular and non-vascular
Which type of plant has a system of veins?	vascular plants
What do vascular plants have?	an elongated tube like structure through which water, food, and dissolved minerals are transported through
What are the majority of plants?	vascular
Non-vascular plants are relatively _______ compared to vascular plants?	small
How thick are the tissues of non-vascular plants?	a few cells thick
How are water and nutrients conducted through the tissues?	osmosis and diffusion
Where do non-vascular plants need to live?	close to water
When did plants begin to produce seeds?	as they evolved to adapt to live away from land
What three things does a seed contain?	1. an embryo 2. stored food 3. seed coat/seed cover
How do land plants reproduce?	by producing spores or seeds
Why do non-seed plants need a moister environment?	because to reproduce, the male gamete swims through a film of water to reach the female counterpart
What do non-seed plants produce?	new plants without seeds
How do these plants make new plants?	by using tiny cells called spores
What are some examples of non-seed plants?	ferns, liverworts, and mosses like sphagnum moss
What do seed plants produce?	seeds
What are all seed plants?	vascular plants or they have vascular tissues
What are vascular plants divided into?	gymnosperms and angiosperms
Gymnosperms	plants which produce seeds in cones
Some examples of gymnosperms	pine trees and spruce trees
Angiosperms	flowering plants
Where are the seeds from angiosperms produced?	flowers
Examples of angiosperms	peanuts and lentils
Are gymnosperms seeds enclosed in a fruit?	no
What form are gymnosperms leaves in?	needles
How much percent do angiosperms make up of all plants?	80 percent
What do the flowers of angiosperms have?	male and female reproductive organs
Components of angiosperms	true roots, leaves, stems, and they produce flowers
Components of gymnosperms	roots, stems, leave/needles
How are angiosperms classified?	based on the number of cotyledons into dicotyledon and monocotyledon
Cotyledons	seed leaves contained within the seed
Which cotyledon makes up the majority of angiosperms?	dicots
What are some species of plants that are monocot?	grass, lilies, and palms
What are some species of plants that are dicot?	most familiar trees (except conifers), shrubs, wildflowers and herbs
How many cotyledons do monocots have?	one
What shape are the leaves of monocots?	usually parallel
What are monocots vascular bundle made up of?	xylem and phloem
How are the xylem and phloem arranged?	they are scattered
What multiple are monocots flowers in?	threes
What types of root system do monocots have?	a fibrous root system
How many cotyledons do dicots have?	two
What are xylem and phloem together?	veins
What type of veins do dicots have?	a network
How is the dicot vascular bundle arranged?	in a ring
What multiple are the flowers in for dicot?	fours and fives
What type of root system do dicots have?	tap
What type of structure is a flower?	reproductive
What is present with the flower?	the plants reproductive organ and its function is to produce seeds after fertilization
What are parts of the flower?	stamen pistil petals sepals
What are the only fertile structures?	stamen and pistil
What are they involved in?	the formation of seeds
Pistil	the female reproductive system
What does the pistil consist of?	stigma style pollen tube ovary *ovules
Stigma	the sticky or feathery top part of the style where pollen grains land
Style	a thin stalk that connects the stigma to the ovary
Pollen tube	grows down the style to reach the ovary
Ovary	present at the base of the pistil
What is present inside of the ovary?	the ovules
What will the ovary eventually become?	the fruit
Ovules	the female sex cells which when are fertilized will become the seed
Stamen	male reproductive organ
What does the stamen consist of?	anther filament *pollen grains
Anther	sits on top of the filament and produces pollen grains
Filament	the stalk on which the anther is present
Pollen grains	male sex cells
What happens when the anther reaches maturity?	it splits open to release pollen grains
Petals	brightly colored leaf like structures that surround the pistils and stamens
How do petals attract pollinators?	nectar or perfume
What are all the petals together called?	the corolla
Sepals	leaf like parts of a flower that make up the outermost part of the flower
What do the sepals serve as?	as a protective covering for the flower bud
In some cases the sepals are _____ and resemble _______.	colored, petals
What are all the sepals together called?	the calyx
How are flowers classified?	based on the presence or absence of reproductive systems
What is a flower called when it has both male and female reproductive parts?	a perfect flower or a bisexual plant
What is a plant called when male and female reproductive structures are present on different flowers?	imperfect flowers or unisexual
What are individual plants called if they are either male or female?	dioecious
What are examples of dioecious plants?	hollies and date palms
What are plants that have male and female flowers on the same plant called?	monoecious
Photoperiodism	refers to the plants sensitivity to changing length of night
Based on this, what are they classified into?	Short day plants long day plants *day neutral plants
Short day plants	are induced to flower by exposure to long nights. They flower in early summer and early autumn
Long day plants	they flower when days are longer than night. They flower in spring as the day length becomes longer
Day neutral plants	flower whenever it matures, irrespective of day length
Examples of short day plants	poinsettia cocklebur *coffee
Examples of long day plants	carnation henbane *oat
Examples of day neutral plants	roses cucumbers *tomatoes
what are plants classified as based on periods of growth?	annuals Biennial *Perennial
Annual	Grow, reproduce and die in one growing season Ex:Corn, rice
Biennial	produce leaves,and food in one year and reproduce and die on the second Ex;parsley, carrot
perennial	live from one growing season to the next Ex; banana, apple
Pollination	Process by which pollen grains from the anther are carried by wind and animals to the stigma, then goes down the pollen tube and into the ovary to the ovules
what are the 2 types of pollination?	Self-pollination *Cross Pollination
Self-pollination	the transfer of pollen from the anther of the flower to the stigma of the same flower or to different flowers of the same plant
cross pollination	The fertilization of the ovary on one plant with pollen of another plant, producing a progeny with a new genetic makeup distinct from either plant
When is the pollen tube formed?	when a pollen grain lands on the stigma
what does the pollen tube do/help in?	helps in the movement of pollen grains to the ovary from the stigma
Micropyle	a tiny opening through which pollen grains enter the ovary, at the bottom of the pollen tube
Ovule	female plant sex cell
What happens when the pollen grain enters the ovary?	it fuses with the ovule to form a diploid cell called the zygote
what happens after fertilization?	most of the flower parts die, and the development of the seed begins
What does the zygote then develop into?	the embryo
what happens as the embryo grows?	the outer layer of the ovule becomes the seed coat *after it finally becomes the seed
What is the job of the seed coat?	to protect the embryo
what are seeds made of?	The embryo stored food the seed coat
what does the ovary become as the seed further develops?	It enlarges and becomes the fruit
a fruit is nothing more than a _____	ripened ovary of a flower with one or more seeds
what types of fruits can plants produce?	fleshy or dry
Fleshy fruit examples	apples mangoes melons tomatoes
Dry fruit exmples	sunflower and walnuts
what happens in dry fruits as the fruit matures?	the ovaries around the seed harden
Seed dispersal	process by which seeds are carried from the parent to the soil where it can germinate
A seed is basically a ________	mature ovule
How can fruits help in seed dispersal?	protecting the seed providing water *bring it to a new environment, through animals
What animals help in seed dispersal?	Deer, birds and bears
How?	By eating the fruit, moving and then either spitting out the seeds or crapping them out in a new environment
why are squirrels really freaking dumb?	they burry seeds then forget where, therefore dispersing seeds (EPIC FAIL!!!)
Which seeds have fiber and air pockets?	coconut
What does this enable the seed to do?	float in water and drift away from the parent plant
Seeds of orchids are very _____.	tiny
What helps in the dispersal of seeds of orchids?	wind
What happens after the seed develops and matures?	the seed coat hardens and dries to enable the seed to survive harsh environmental conditions
Seeds of some plants can remain in the soil until conditions become ________.	favorable
What is this period of inactivity called?	dormancy
How long can some seeds be dormant for?	15-20 years
What is germination the first step of?	the development of the plant outside the seed coat
What are the four factors required for germination?	1. water 2. oxygen 3. temperature 4. light
As a seed absorbs water and swells, what happens to the seed coat?	it ruptures
What does this help with?	in the movement of oxygen into the seed
What does the intake of oxygen and water trigger?	cellular respiration
What is produced?	energy
What happens as the cells begin to divide?	the embryonic root or the radicle emerges
What happens as the cells continue to divide?	the radicle eventually grows into the primary root
What happens as the primary root continues to divide?	the embryonic shoot or the plumule emerges
What is formed from the plumule?	coleoptile
Roots	underground parts of the plants that help anchor the plant, absorb water and minerals, and help transport them to the stem
What do some roots also help in?	the storage of excess food
What are the two main types of root system?	fibrous and tap root system
Taproots	have a main fleshy root with branching roots
Examples of taproots	beets and carrots
Fibrous rots	have numerous branched from a central point
Root cap	the tip of the root that has a dome shaped mass of cells
What does the root cap protect?	the root tip
What does the root cap help push?	it helps push the root through the soil
Epidermis	the outermost covering of the root and it helps in the absorption of water and nutrients from the soil
Root hairs	single threadlike extensions of the epidermis
What do the root hairs increase?	the surface area of the roots and facilitates greater absorption of water and nutrients
Xylem	vascular tissues that help conduct water and nutrients absorbed by the roots to the stem and leaves
Phloem	vascular tissues that help conduct sugar made in the leaves to other parts of the plants
Cortex	the widest part of the plant where food is stored
Cambium	tissues present between the xylem and phloem
What does cambium give rise to?	new xylem and phloem
Pneumatophores	plants that grow in swamps that put forth structures from their underground roots
What do these facilitate?	oxygen supply to the underground roots
Aerial roots	Plants, such as orchids, that extend into the air
What does vanilla have?	aerial roots that are green and photosynthetic
What does ivy put forth?	aerial roots called climbing roots, which help in anchoring the plant as it grows
Food storage roots	roots that store excess food in their roots
What are examples of food storage roots?	carrots, beets, radishes, and turnips
What are examples of buttress roots?	species of figs and other tropical trees
What do buttress roots help support?	the tree
Prop roots	roots that grow above the ground and help support tall plants such as corn
What are stems?	part of the plant that grows above the ground
What do they help support?	leaves and flowers
What do stems help in the transport of?	water, mineral ions, and sugars to and from the leaves to the roots
What can stems be?	herbaceous or woody
Herbaceous stems	soft and thin and may carry out some photosynthesis
Example of herbaceous stems	petunias, impatience, and carnations
Woody stems	they are hard and rigid (that's what she said...)
How long can some woody stems of trees live for?	centuries
Examples of woody stems	conifers, trees, and shrubs
What are transported through the stem?	water, sugars, and other organic compounds
What does the xylem transport?	water from the roots through the stem to the leaves
What is transported throughout the plant by the phloem?	sugar that is produced in the leaf as a result of photosynthesis
What is the movement of sugars through the phloem called?	translocation
Bulbs	swollen underground stems
Examples of bulbs	onions, lilies, and tulips
Rhizomes	underground stems that grow horizontally
Examples of rhizomes	grasses, ferns, irises, and ginger
Runners and stolons	stem modifications that grow horizontally that grow above ground
Example of runners and stolons	strawberry
Tubers	underground stem that stores food
Example of tubers	potato
Tendril	climbing plants that have modified leaves which help twine around supports
Examples of tendrils	grapes and ivy
Cacti and some Cassia species stem is modified to form a __________.	cladophyll
What are the actual leaves of cladophyll?	spines
Leaves	organs that produce food for the plants by the process called photosynthesis
What is the leaf called when it is divided into leaflets?	the compound leaf
What is it called if only one leaf is arranged on the stem?	alternate
Two leaves?	opposite
Three or more leaves?	whorled
Epidermis	the outermost brick-like layer of cells of the leaf
Upper Epidermis	covered by the cuticle, which is a waxy layer that lacks chloroplasts
Lower epidermis	has openings called stomata and is sometimes covered by a layer of cuticle
Cuticle	the waxy layer that is usually present on the upper epidermis and helps prevent water loss
Mesophyll layer	where the photosynthetic tissues are present
What are the two types of mesophyll layer?	palisade mesophyll and spongy mesophyll
Palisade mesophyll	tightly packed cells with chloroplasts within which is present the green pigment chlorophyll
What does chlorophyll help absorb?	sunlight that is required for photosynthesis
Spongy mesophyll	loosely packed cells that are irregularly shaped
Why are they loosely packed?	because CO2 and oxygen and water vapor are freely flowing around
Does the spongy mesophyll have chloroplasts?	yes
Veins	transport tubes that consist of xylem and phloem
Xylem	help in the transport of water to the leaves from the roots
Phloem	help in the transport of food from the leaves to other parts of the plant
Guard Cells	present in the lower epidermis. they regulate the size of the opening of the stomata
Stomata	opening through which gases are exchanged and excess water is released
What is the loss of water through the stomata called?	transpiration
Leaf Modification	evolved to adapt to different environmental conditons
Floral leaves	the red colored bracts are modified leaves. this helps the plant attract pollinators
Example of floral leaves	poinsettia
What do spines help in?	reducing water loss
Example of spines	barberry
Insectivorous leaves	modified to trap insects
Example of Insectivorous leaves	pitcher plant
Reproductive leaves	produce complete tiny plantlets along their leaf margin
Each plantlet can be _________ and be _______ into a new plant.	separated, grown
Example of reproductive leaves	kalanchoe
Synthesis	the combining of different things to form something new
What are the two phases of photosynthesis?	light dependent and light independent reactions
What happens in light dependent reactions?	light is converted to chemical energy
What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis?	6CO2 + 12H2O turns into C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Where does the light dependent reaction take place?	in the grana present in the chloroplasts
What are the most common pigments present?	chlorophyll a and b
What color can chlorophyll not absorb?	green
What is yellow caused by?	xanthophylls
Orange?	carotene
Red?	anthocyanin
What is energy necessary for?	growth, maintenance, repair, and reproduction
What are the two stages of cellular respiration?	anaerobic and aerobic
What is produced at the end of cellular respiration?	32 molecules of ATP from one glucose molecule
_______ is the virus that causes AIDS.	HIV
When is a person said to be HIV+ ?	if he or she is infected with HIV
True or False, an HIV+ person has AIDS?	False
What does HIV stand for?	Human Immunodeficiency Virus
What does AIDS stand for?	Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
When does a person have AIDS?	if the number of CD4 cells in an HIV+ individual is less than 200 per a microliter
True or False, people do not die from AIDS?	True
How do people die from AIDS?	there immune systems cannot protect them from diseases anymore because it is weakened.
When did scientists begin to see homosexuals with diseases normally resisted by the immune system?	1981
Name two diseases that normally do not effect humans, but which were discovered by doctors in homosexuals?	Pneumocystis carini Kaposi's sarcoma
What was the reason for homosexuals having diseases that humans were normally resistant to?	They had damaged immune systems.
What was the second group of people that began to show AIDS symptoms?	hemophiliacs and other recipients of blood transfusions
What other kinds of people began to show AIDS related symptoms besides blood transfusion recipients and homosexuals?	intravenous drug users and babies born to mothers who had the syndrome
How many cases of the syndrome had been reported by mid 1985? How many died?	12000, half
AIDS is a primarily ___________ transmitted disease.	sexually
Epidemiological studies eventually traced the origin of AIDS to __________.	Africa
Unlike in the US, in Africa, AIDS was transmitted primarily through _____________ contact.	Heterosexual
Like in all diseases, the _________ were the hardest it.	poorest
What is the cost of drugs to prolong an HIV+ individuals life?	20,000 USD per year
What is the name of the Indian company which is selling antibiotics for HIV+ people very cheaply?	CIPRO
How much does CIPRO sell their HIV+ antibiotics for?	350-500 USD
After 1996, ___ percent of the _________ infected people lived in ____________, one of the poorest regions in the world.	68, newly, sub-Saharan Africa
Is it likely for CIPRO to be marketed in the U.S. soon?	no, HIGHly unlikely
When was there a decline in the number of deaths due to AIDS related illnesses in the U.S.?	in 1997
What did the decline occur mostly in?	white, gay, and bisexual men
Where were these prevention and treatment organizations aimed at?	white, gay, and bisexual men
Why have men and women in African-American and Latino communities been hard hit?	because of the incidence of heterosexuals becoming infected in the U.S. had been rising steadily
What was assumed early in the epidemic?	that the at-risk groups were homosexual men or Haitians
Why did people think Haitians were at risk?	because they are Haitian (how racist is that?!?!?!)
Who were turned away by the U.S. govt because of this faulty assumption?	Haitian boat people
Today, why are Africans often suspected of being at-risk?	because of their living in Africa (once again, how racist is that?!?!?! oh, and 'countriest'!!!)
Why was it a mistake to ask men if they were gay in education or prevention work?	because many African-American, Latino, and Asian men who have sexual relations with other men don't identify themselves to be gay or bisexual
What are example of sexual behaviors that put people at risk?	sexual practices without barrier protection, shared needles, or a partner who engages in risky behavior
What is a popular misconception of AIDS?	that AIDS is a disease that only affects homosexuals, intravenous drug users and prostitutes
Globally, what is the greatest increase in reported cases of AIDS?	heterosexual women, who are at risk due to their partners' behaviors
In many countries, there are more important needs than AIDS, such as _____ drinking water.	safe
What is the estimation for the amount of people living with HIV?	40 million
What is the ratio of the amount of people who have HIV from the ages 15-49?	1:100
How many children have HIV under the age of 15?	1.1 million
When do most infections occur?	between the ages of 15-24
Of the 12 million people who have so far died of AIDS since the epidemic began, __% were women and __% were children.	46, 20
How long can these drugs (20,000 USD) prolong a HIV infected person's life?	15 years
What does being poor restrict you to?	good healthcare
One half of all new cases of AIDS in the U.S. are below the age of ___.	24
What is HIV a member of?	a family of retroviruses called lentivirus
What genetic material does a retrovirus carry?	RNA
Inside the host cell RNA is ________ into ______.	transcribed, DNA
What are the two types of lentiviruses?	FIV and SIV
What does SIV stand for?	simian immunodeficiency virus
What does FIV stand for?	feline immunodeficiency virus
What does FIV infect?	cats
What does SIV infect?	monkeys and non-human primates
What is HIV transmitted through?	blood, semen, breast milk, and vaginal secretions
Who has a higher risk of getting AIDS if their partner is infected?	women
What is the percent for women?	70
For men?	30
AIDS is a primarily a _______ transmitted disease.	sexually
TRUE or FALSE: there is risk in giving blood transfusions through a blood center.	false, there is no risk
Is HIV secreted in saliva?	yes, but not very much compared to #53
Does transmission of HIV through kissing occur?	not normally
When would HIV get transferred though kissing?	if there is a small amount of blood transferred
Of the children that are infected, __% die before they are 3 years old.	95
Two or four weeks after being exposed to HIV, what will most people get?	flu-like symptoms
What are some flu-like symptoms?	fever, rash, head-ache, sore throat, vomiting
How long do these symptoms generally last?	one to a few weeks
After this, an infected person may be free of any symptoms for a period of at least __ years.	10
What happens after the period of latency?	the immune system will succumb to the virus
What happens after this?	symptoms of AIDS appear
How is HIV infection determined by?	the presence of HIV specific antibodies
How is the presence of these antibodies confirmed by?	two tests
What are these two tests?	ELISA and the Western blot test
What does ELISA stand for?	Enzyme Linked Immunoabsorbent Assay
If the person proves positive on both ELISA test, what happens?	the blood serum is tested by a Western blot
The tests together have at least ____% accuracy.	99.5
What do both tests depend on?	the formation of antibodies against HIV by the infected person
Antibody	proteins that are produced by certain immune cells called B cells
_______ is the virus that causes AIDS.	HIV
When is a person said to be HIV+ ?	if he or she is infected with HIV
True or False, an HIV+ person has AIDS?	False
What does HIV stand for?	Human Immunodeficiency Virus
What does AIDS stand for?	Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
When does a person have AIDS?	if the number of CD4 cells in an HIV+ individual is less than 200 per a microliter
True or False, people do not die from AIDS?	True
How do people die from AIDS?	there immune systems cannot protect them from diseases anymore because it is weakened.
When did scientists begin to see homosexuals with diseases normally resisted by the immune system?	1981
Name two diseases that normally do not effect humans, but which were discovered by doctors in homosexuals?	Pneumocystis carini Kaposi's sarcoma
What was the reason for homosexuals having diseases that humans were normally resistant to?	They had damaged immune systems.
What was the second group of people that began to show AIDS symptoms?	hemophiliacs and other recipients of blood transfusions
What other kinds of people began to show AIDS related symptoms besides blood transfusion recipients and homosexuals?	intravenous drug users and babies born to mothers who had the syndrome
How many cases of the syndrome had been reported by mid 1985? How many died?	12000, half
AIDS is a primarily ___________ transmitted disease.	sexually
Epidemiological studies eventually traced the origin of AIDS to __________.	Africa
Unlike in the US, in Africa, AIDS was transmitted primarily through _____________ contact.	Heterosexual
Like in all diseases, the _________ were the hardest it.	poorest
What is the cost of drugs to prolong an HIV+ individuals life?	20,000 USD per year
What is the name of the Indian company which is selling antibiotics for HIV+ people very cheaply?	CIPRO
How much does CIPRO sell their HIV+ antibiotics for?	350-500 USD
How long do drugs prolong an HIV postitive person's life until they develop full-blown AIDS?	15
One half of all new cases of AIDS in the US are below ____.	24
Since 1998 more than _________ women have been diagnosed with AIDS.	70,000
AIDS is the _____ leading cause of death in women aged 24-44.	fourth
HIV is a member of _______.	retroviruses
What is the name of the family of retroviruses that HIV is a part of?	lentivirus
A retrovirus carries _____ as its genetic material rather than DNA.	RNA
What is infected by FIV?	cats
What is infected by SIV?	monkeys and non-human primates
What does FIV stand for?	feline immunodeficiency virus
What does SIV stand for?	simian immunodeficiency virus
HIV belongs to the retrovirus family, which is distinguished from other viruses by the presence of ______ ________.	reverse transcriptase
Most retroviruses are ______.	spherical
Most retroviruses consist of an internal protein core surrounded by an external ___________ ________.	glycoprotein envelope
The external protein of HIV cells consists of ____ and ____.	gp120 gp41
How many bases is the HIV genome?	10 kilo-bases
How many sub-types of HIV are there?	10
How many sub-types of HIV have been thoroughly identified and studied?	2
HIV-1 and HIV-2 share ___% of the same genes.	40
HIV-1 and HIV-2 differ in their ___ gene.	ENV
Which gene is responsible for synthesizing the envelope protein gp120?	the env gene
Once HIV enters aq living organism the gp120 envelope protein binds to the _____ receptor protein.	CD4
What two types of immune cells have CD4 receptor protein present on their surfaces?	T4 and monocyte-macrophage
What is the viral DNA called when it integrates with the T-cell's DNA?	provirus
After affecting their host, HIV cells undergo a period of their life cycle called the "_______ _____."	latency period
One of HIV's main targets is a sub group of white blood cells called _______.	CD4 + T-cells
What marks the final phase of HIV?	a sharp drop in the number of in the number of CD4+ T-cells
What are the three ways that HIV can destroy T4-cells?	1. Destroys the T4-cells by destroying the cell membrane to release the virus. 2. The production of viral genes and proteins can interfere with the normal functioning of T-4 cells. 3. HIV can also indirectly cause the death of the T-4 cell. After it infects the T4-cells, it leaves the gp-120 receptor protein on the cell membrane of the T4-cell. So now the infected T4-cell binds to other uninfected cells forming a synctium (mass of cells). These cells die shortly after they are formed.
What is a synctium?	a mass of cells
True or False, HIV is more likely to infect Monocyte-Macrophage then T4-cells?	False
When HIV infects monocytes it goes through a period of ______.	quiescent
HIV enters the monocyte through _________.	phagocytosis
HIV is transmitted through ______,_______,_____ ____, and ____ ______.	blood semen breast milk vaginal secretions
If a man is infected the uninfected woman has a ___% chance of becoming infected.	70
If a woman is infected the uninfected man has a ___% chance of being infected.	30
Since _____, blood testing for HIV is required before a donation is accepted.	1985
About ____% of HIV+ women have children whose blood essentially seroconverts to HIV.	30
Of the children who are infected with HIV, ____% die before they are _____ years old.	95 3
Give the 9 symptoms of AIDS experienced after 2-4 weeks. (flu-liked symptoms)	fever, headaches, rash, sore throat, ache in muscles and joints, nausea, vomiting, mouth ulcers, and swollen lymph glands
After initial symptoms, an infected person may be free of any symptoms for a period of at least ___ years.	10
What three factors can potentially prolong the healthy period.	proper nutrition, a positive outlook, and social support.
After the period of latency, when the immune system succumbs to the virus, what are the symptoms?	frequent fevers, sweats, frquent and persistent infections that may not respond to treatment, orpersistent skin rashes.
HIV infection is determined by the presence of specific HIV antibodies, which the body usually produces __ to __ weeks after infection.	6 12
What are the two tests for HIV?	the ELISA and the Western blot tests
When an individual tests positive for antibodies, they are ___ ______.	HIV positive
AIDS is primarily diagnosed based on the presence of _________ infections.	oppurtunistic
What does ELISA stand for?	Enzyme Linked Immunoabsorbent Assay
The two HIV tests together have ___% accuracy.	99.5
Antibodies are proteins produced by certain immune cells called ___ cells.	B
Explain how to behave sexually in a way that prevents receiving AIDS.	Total abstinence is the surest way to avoid becoming infected with HIV. Monogamy between two non-infected people also reduces the possibility of getting AIDS. Using latex condoms properly, before their expiration date also reduces risk. The estimated failure rate of condoms is 2% to 10%. Sheepskin condoms are not safe because of the porous nature of the material. Even a latex condom can fail if it is not stored, handled, or used properly.
What is monogamy?	sexual relations with only one person.
Explain how to use drugs in a way that prevents receiving AIDS.	Avoiding the use of intoxicating substances is the best way to avoid an HIV infection. Mind altering drugs or even alcohol can cloud one's judgement and can lead to "high risk" behavior. It has been studied that a person is more likely to have sex under the influence of alcohol than drugs. Both behaviors fall under high-risk groups. If one does use drugs, avoid sharing needles. Some programs have intravenous drug users exchange used needles for new ones, and educate intravenous drug users how to clean their needles with bleach.
Explain how health care workers should behave to prevent themselves from being infected with AIDS.	Nurses and doctors must take proper precautions, like wearing latex gloves in situations where they may be handling blood. They should wear facemasks to prevent blood from splattering into their mouth. Also, health care workers should treat all blood as potentially infected with HIV.
What does AZT stand for?	Azidothymine
Name three recent drugs for the prevention of AIDS other than AZT.	amprenavir crixivan epivir
Examples of short day plants	poinsettia cocklebur *coffee
Examples of long day plants	carnation henbane *oat
Examples of day neutral plants	roses cucumbers *tomatoes
Annual	Corn, rice
Biennial	parsley, carrot
perennial	banana, apple
Fleshy fruit examples	apples mangoes melons tomatoes
Dry fruit exmples	sunflower and walnuts
What animals help in seed dispersal?	deer, bears and birds by pooping in the woods ( not sh--ting in the woods, mr. foultyper!!!)
Which seeds have fiber and air pockets?	coconut
Examples of taproots	beets and carrots
What are examples of food storage roots?	carrots, beets, radishes, and turnips
What are examples of buttress roots?	species of figs and other tropical trees
Example of herbaceous stems	petunias, impatience, and carnations
Woody stems	they are hard and rigid (that's what she said...)
Examples of woody stems	conifers, trees, and shrubs
Examples of bulbs	onions, lilies, and tulips
Examples of rhizomes	grasses, ferns, irises, and ginger
Example of runners and stolons	strawberry
Example of tubers	potato
Examples of tendrils	grapes and ivy
Example of floral leaves	poinsettia
Example of spines	barberry
Example of Insectivorous leaves	pitcher plant
Example of reproductive leaves	kalanchoe
What is yellow caused by?	xanthophylls
Orange?	carotene
Red?	anthocyanin
What is yellow caused by?	xanthophylls
Orange?	carotene
Red?	anthocyanin
How many species of plants are there	Over 275000
When did plants evolve	Around 500 million years ago
What are the earliest known plant fossils	Psilophytes
Example of psilophyte	Cooksonia
When did cooksonia exist	400 million years ago
Plants evolved from what	Filamentous green algae
Both algae and plants have what in there cell wall	Cellulose
Plants store excess food as what	Starch
Plants use what to photosynthesize	Chlorophyll
In land plants, what are the organs of photosynthesis	Leaves
All plants require what	Water, dissolved minerals, and sunlight
What do plants depend on for nutrients and water	Soil
Plants are able to absorb water and nutrients through what	Roots
What two things can roots help in	Anchoring the plant to the soil, and acting as storage organs
After photosynthesis the food produced is sent to what	Roots
Stems contain what that help in transportation	Tissues
4 functions of the stem	- help in the transportation of nutrients - store excess food - keep the plant upright - sometimes can conduct photosynthesis
Plants are broadly classified based on what	The presence or absence of transport system of intracellular elongated tubes that transport water and nutrients
Plants are broadLy classified into what	Vascular and non-vascular
What is the difference between vascular and non vascular plants	Vascular plants have a transport system of veins, whereas non vascular plants don't have such a system
Majority of plants are non vascular or vascular	Vascular
Which is generally bigger, non vascular or vascular	Vascular
Non vascular plants have tissue how thick	Few cells thick
Where do non vascular plants usually live	Near water
What do seeds contain	The embryo, stored food, and cover called the seed coat
Land plants reproduce by either producing what	Seeds or spores
In non seed plants, how are spores produced	The male gamete swims through a film of water to reach its female counterpart, this is why they need to live in a moister environment
Examples of non seed plants	Ferns, liverworts and mosses
Example of non seed moss	Sphagnum moss
Plants either are ............ or have ............ Tissues	Vascular, vascular
Seed plants, or vascular plants are classified into what	Gymnosperms and angiosperms
What are gymnosperms	Plants that produce seeds in cones
examples of gymnosperms	pine trees and spruce trees
what are angiosperms	plants that produce seeds from flowers
what are angiosperm leaves in the form of	needles
what percentage do angiosperms constitute of all plants	80%
what are characteristics of angiosperms	the have male and female reproductive organs, true roots, leaves, stems, produce flowers
what are angiosperms classification based on	number of cotyledons
cotyledon	seed leaves contained within the seed
monocot or dicot make up for most of angiosperms	dicot
example of monocot	grass, lilies, and palms
example of dicot	shrubs, wildflowers, and herbs
characteristics of monocot	- one cotyledon - vascular bundle, (xylem/ phloem) are scattered - flower petals in multiples of three - fibrous root system
characteristics of dicot	- two cotyledons - vascular bundle in form of a ring - flower petals are in multiples of 4 or 5 - tap root system
what is the flower	reproductive organ present in angiosperms
flowers function	to produce seeds after fertilization
what parts constitute the flower	stamen, pistil, petals, and sepals
fertile structures of the flower	stamen and pistil
female reproductive organ	pistil
female reproductive organ consists of what	stigma, style, pollen tube, ovary, ovules
what is the stigma	sticky or feathery top part of the style, pollen grains land on the stigma
style	thin stalk that connects the stigma to the ovary
pollen tube	grows down the style to reach the ovary
ovary	present at the base of the pistil. the ovary will eventually become the fruit
what will eventually become the fruit in a flowering plant	ovary
ovules	female sex cells, which when fertilized will become seeds
male reproductive organ	stamen
male reproductive organ consists of what	anther, filament, and pollen grains
anther	sits on top of the filament, produces pollen grains
filament	the stalk on which the anther is present
pollen grains function	when anther reaches maturity, the anther splits open to release pollen grains, the male sex cell
what are petals	brightly colored leaf like structures that surrounds the pistil and stamens
what do petals often have and why	nectar or perfume to attract pollinators
all the petals on the flower together are called what	corolla
what are sepals	leaf like parts of a flower that make up the outermost part of the flower
what do sepals serve as	a protective covering for the flower bud
all the sepals of a flower together are called what	calyx
what are flowers classified on	presence or absence of reproductive structures
what is a flower that has both female and male reproductive organs called	perfect plant or bisexual plant
what are plants called when they have different reproductive organs	imperfect plants or unisexual plants
individual plants that are either male or female	dioecious
examples of dioecious	hollies and date palms
unisexual plants that have male and female reproductive organs on the same plant, but on different flowers	monoecoius
what holds the male flower on corn	tassel
what holds the female flower on corn	ears
photoperiodism	plants sensitivity to changing length of night
plant classification based on what photoperiodism	short day plants long day plants day neutral plants
short day plants	induced to flower be exposure to long nights
when do short day plants flower	early summer and early autumn
long day plants	flower when days are longer than night
when do long day plants flower	spring
day neutral plants	flower when ever plant matures, irrespective of day length
based on photoperiodism, what kind of plant makes up most of them	day neutral plants
plant classification based on growing periods	annuals biennial plants perennials
annuals	grow, reproduce, and die within one growing season
biennial plants	produce leaves and food in one ear and reproduce and die in the second year
perennials	these live from one growing season to the next
pollination	process by which pollen grains form the anther are carried by wind and animals to the stigma, the pollen grain then goes down the pollen tube into the ovary to the ovules
types of pollination	self pollination cross pollination
self pollination	the transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower, or to different flowers on the same plant
cross pollination	the fertilization of the ovary on one plant with pollen from another plant, producing a progeny with new genetic makeup distinct form either parent
fertilization	once the pollen grain lands on the stigma, the pollen tube is formed, the pollen tube helps in the movement of pollen grains to the ovary. the pollen grains enter the ovary through a tiny opening called the micropyle. once inside the ovary, they fuse with female sex cell, ovule. the fusion of the pollen grains with the ovules produce a diploid cell called the zygote
after fertilization what dies and what begins	most of the flower parts die, and the development of the seed begins
zygote develops to form what	embryo
as the embryo grows, the outer layer of the ovule becomes what	seed coat
seed dispersal	process by which seeds are carried from the parent to the soil where it can germinate.
what happens after the seed develops and matures	the seed coat hardens and dries to enable the seed to survive harsh environmental conditions
what is a seeds period of inactivity called	dormancy
factors required for germination	water, oxygen, temperature, and light
germination	as a seed absorbs water and swells, the seed coat ruptures. this helps in the movement of oxygen into the seed. the intake of oxygen and water triggers cellular respiration and energy is produced. as cells begin to divide the embryonic root or the radicle emerges. as the cells continue to divide the radicle eventually grows into the primary foot. as the primary foot continues to divide the embryonic shoot or the plumule emerges. from the plumule the coleoptile is formed, which encloses group of leaves to form the shoot system
where does cell division take place most rapidly in plants	apical meristem
what is in between two nodes	internode
what is the middle vein on a leaf called	midrib
what connects the leaf to the stem	petiole
what is the edge of the leaf called	leaf margin
what is the central and main root called	primary root
what is a branching root from the primary root called	lateral root
functions of root	anchor the plant, absorb water and minerals, help transport substances to the stem, help store excess food
tap root system	a main fleshy root with other branching roots
fibrous root system	numerous branches from a central point
example of tap roots	beets and carrots
root structure parts	root cap epidermis root hairs xylem phloem cortex cambium
root cap	tip of the root that has dome shaped mass of cells
what is the root caps function	protects the root tip and helps push the root through soil
epidermis	outermost covering of the root.
what is the epidermis' function	absorb water and nutrients from the soil
root hairs	single threadlike extensions of the epidermis
root hair function	facilitates greater absorption of water and nutrients
xylem	vascular tissues that help conduct water and nutrients absorbed by the roots to the stem and leaves
phloem	vascular tissues that help conduct sugar made in the leaves to other parts of the plants
cortex	widest part of the plant where food is stored
cambium	tissue between the xylem and phloem, and give rise to new xylem and phloem
what are examples of root modifications	pneumatophores aerial roots food storage roots butress roots prop roots
pneumatophores	plants that grow in swamps put forth structures from their underground roots called pneumatophores. these facilitate oxygen supply to the underground roots
aerial roots	roots that extend into the air
examples of aerial root plants	vanilla and ivy
ivy aerial roots are called	climbing roots
food storage roots	roots that store excess food in their roots
examples of food storage roots	carrots, beets, radishes, and turnips
butress roots	huge roots at the base of the tree that help support the it
examples of buttress roots	species of figs, tropical trees
prop roots	roots grow above ground and help support tall plants such as corn
stems	stems are part of the plant that grows above the ground
stem helps support what	leaves and flowers
stems help in what	the transport of water, minerals, ions, and sugars to and from the leaves to hte roots.
stems can be either _______ or ___________	herbaceous or woody
herbaceous stems	soft and thin and may carry out some photosynthesis
example of herbaceous stems	petunias, impatience, and carnations
examples of woody stems	trees and shrubs conifers
what is transported through the stem	water, sugars, and other organic compounds
movement of sugars through the phloem is called what	translocation
stem modifications list	bulbs rhizomes runners and stolons tubers tendrils cladophylls
bulbs	swollen underground stems
example of bulbs	onions, lilies, and tulips
rhizomes	underground stems that grow horizontally
example of rhizomes	grasses, ferns, irises, and ginger
runners and stolons	rhizomes, except the grow above ground
example of runners and stolons	strawberry, elephant ear
tubers	underground stem that stores food
example of tuber	potato
tendrils	modified leaves known as tendrils which help twin around supports
example of tendrils	grapes and ivy
cladophyll	the actual leaves are the spines
example of cladophyll	cassia and cacti
leaves	organs that produce food for the plants by the process called photosynthesis.
simple leaf	a leaf with a single blade that is not divided
what is a leaf called when it is divided into leaflets	compound leaf
what is it called when only one leaf is present at one point	alternate
two leaves present at one point is called	opposite
three or more leaves present at one point	whorled
structures present in leaf	upper epidermis lower epidermis cuticle mesophyll layer palisade cells of the mesophyll layer spongy cells of the spongy mesophyll layer veins xylem phloem guard cells stomata
epidermis	outermost bricklike layer of cells of the leaf
upper epidermis	top layer of leaf covered by cuticle
cuticle	waxy layer that is usually present on the upper epidermis that helps prevent water loss
lower epidermis	bottom layer of leaf that has openings called stomata and is sometimes covered by cuticle
mesophyll layer	where the photosynthetic tissues are present
two types of tissue in mesophyll layer	palisade mesophyll, and spongy mesophyll
what does cuticle lack	chloroplasts
palisade	tightly packed cells with chloroplasts within which is present chlorophyll.
where is palisade located and why	right under the upper epidermis for maximum exposure to sunlight
spongy mesophyll	loosely packed cells that are irregularly shaped.
why are spongy mesophyll loosely packed	becuase CO2, OI2, and water vapor are freely flowing around
veins	transport tubes that consists of xylem and phloem
guard cells	function is to regulate the size of the openings of stomata
stomata	openings where gases are exchanged and excess water is released
loss of water through stomata is called what	transpiration
leaf modification list	floral leaves spines insectivorous leaves reproductive leaves
floral leaves	leaves act as flower petals, which helps attract polinators
spines	reduce water loss
example of floral leaves	poinsettia
example of spine leaves	barberry
insectivorous leaves	leaves modified to trap insects
example of insectivorous leaves	pitcher plant
reproductive leaves	produce complete tiny plantlets along their leaf margin, and each plantlet can be separated and grown into a new plant
example of reproductive leaf plant	Kalanchoe
photosynthesis	process of capturing and transforming the energy of sunlight to produce glucose
synthesis	combining of different things to form something new
two phases of photosynthesis	light dependent reactions light independent reactions
light dependent reaction	light is converted to chemical energy, ATP
what is produced in the light independent reaction	glucose
chemical equation for photosynthesis	6CO2 + 12H20 + SUNLIGHT = C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
where does the light dependent take place	grana in the chloroplasts
common pigments present in chloroplasts	chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b
pigments absorb most wavelengths of light except what	green
yellow pigment is caused by what in leaves	xanthophylls
orange pigment is caused by what in leaves	carotene
red pigment is caused by what in leaves	anthocyanin
energy is necessary for what	growth, maintenance, repair, and reproduction.
two stages of cellular reaction	anaerobic and aerobic
from a single molecule of glucose, how many ATP molecules are produced after cellular respiration	32
chemical equation for cellular respiration	O2 + H2O + C6H12O6 = CO2 + H2O + 32 ATP
Is it possible to eliminate all the bacteria from the environment?	no
While bacteria can't be eliminated, its growth can be _______ or ________ ________	eliminated, slowed down
Refrigeration	a process whereby the growth of bacteria is drastically slowed down
What temperature for refrigeration slows down bacterial growth?	5 degrees C
Where do most bacteria prefer to grow and multiply?	in warm temperature
What does freezing help with?	to kill bacterial cells
What temperature can kill most bacteria present on the surface of food, that is in the freezer?	-5 degrees C
Can some bacteria still survive in -5 degrees C?	yes
What happens when frozen meat is thawed before cooking?	bacteria present on the meat and the air begin to rapidly multiply as the meat is thawing
How do you reduce the bacterial multiplication?	rapid thawing and cooking is recommended
Why should food that has been thawed, not be refrozen?	because during thawing, bacteria multiply and produce toxins
What happens if the thawed meat is refrozen again?	the bacteria present may kill the bacteria on the meat, but the toxins remain on the meat
What does the heat from the sun eliminate?	bacteria, with an exception of endospores
What food doesn't spoil easily?	dry food
What is another quick method?	to apply heat like in industrial ovens
How hot do the ovens need to be?	160 degrees C for 2 hours
How are bacteria more easily destroyed?	in moist steam heat
How can you kill endospores?	by using moist steam heat with an autoclave
What is the temperature the water needs to be to kill most bacteria?	(boiling at) 100 degrees C for 30 minutes
What will this water not kill?	endospore formers
Autoclave	technical version of a pressure cooker
What temperature does it have to be to kill endospore formers?	121 degrees C, at 15-psi pressure for 15 minutes
What does steam heat denture?	the protein present on the bacterial cell wall
Where is pickling used?	in the Middle East and South Asia
What are the types of pickling?	1. includes pickles preserved in vinegar 2. pickles soaked in salt brine solution
What can vinegar kill?	bacteria as the acid builds up
What does salting food remove?	water from the cells
What does this make the environment?	inhospitable for bacterial growth and reproduction
What food is commonly preserved by salting?	fish and meat
What does smoking meats or fish prevent?	microbial spoilage
What foods are commonly preserved by this process?	salmon, oyster, ham, and trout
When does food canning date back to?	the late 18th century
Which French emperor had a difficult time feeding his army with fresh food?	Napoleon Bonaparte
Who came up with a method to preserve food?	a French cook named Nicolas Appert
What did Nicholas Appert use to preserve food?	glass jars sealed with wax reinforced with wire to preserve food
Who came up with the idea of canning food in airtight tin containers?	Peter Durand
Canning process	food products are washed, peeled, cored and subjected to steam heat at 121 degrees C at 15 psi pressure for a duration of 15 minutes
What does this eliminate?	endospores forming Bacillus and Clostridium
What will improper canning result in?	in the formation of endospores, especially by Clodstridium botulinum
What was the process of pasteurization named after?	French bacteriologist Louis Pasteur
How did Pasteur discover that spoilage organisms could be inactivated in wine?	By applying heat at temperatures below its boiling point
How is milk pasteurized?	It is heated to 72 degrees C and cooled quickly
What does pasteurization of milk reduce?	The number of bacteria in the milk
What do antiseptics reduce or destroy?	microorganisms on the skin or mucous membrane without damaging these tissues
What are some commonly used antiseptics?	lysol, tincture of iodine, and low concentrate alcohols
What antiseptic will kill most bacteria except endospore formers?	disinfectants
Where are disinfectants used?	on inanimate objects,
What are some common disinfectants?	chlorine compounds, copper sulfate, formaldehyde and phenolic compounds
What does soap remove?	bacteria by loosening bacteria that cling to the material oil present on the skin
What is present in all soaps that kill the bacteria?	sodium hydroxide
Why do bacteria in your mouth break down sugar?	to produce energy
When the bacteria break down sugar to energy, what do they release?	acids that break down the calcium in your teeth
What does brushing with fluoride toothpaste remove?	the acids present in your mouth preventing tooth decay
What are two antibiotics produced by Streptomyces species?	Erythromycin and tetracycline
Antimicrobial agents	microorganisms that kill or prevent growth of other microorganisms
Who discovered Penicillin and when?	Alexander Flemming in 1928
Penicillin	a type of mold that produces toxins that kill bacteria
How does Penicillin kill bacteria?	by affecting the synthesis of bacterial cell wall
What is the most important quality of antimicrobial agents produced by microorganisms?	its specificity; it kills the causative organism without affecting the animal or human taking the medication
What does a vaccination prepare your body for?	to fight an infection before you are infected
What does taking a shot of a weak or dead bacterium or virus do?	prevent infection
What do the white blood cells become after they destroy the bacterium?	memory cells
Memory cells	remember the infectious organism
What happens during the next real encounter with the infectious organism?	the body's reaction is much faster because the memory cells react much faster to recognize and kill the infectious organism
When do you need to get a booster for a tetanus vaccine?	every 10 years
Steriliztion	a process by which all bacteria are completely eliminated from the object being sterilized
What are the 4 types of sterilization?	dry heat, steam heat, autoclaving, incineration
How are bacteria killed in an autoclave?	by moist heat at 121 degrees C at 15 psi pressure for 15 minutes
How are most surgical instruments made sterile?	by autoclaving
Ethylene dioxide	a gas at room temperature
What does this chemical affect?	amino acids and DNA during bacterial reproduction, rendering them ineffective
What is ETO used for?	to radiate plastic that is hermetically sealed
What are some medical devices that are sterilized using ETO?	petri dishes, pipettes, syringes, etc
What is ozone used to treat?	food and water (drinking and sewage)
What state has the largest ozone water treatment plant in the world?	California
What happens when bacteria are subjected to radiation?	the high energy radioactive waves cut apart bases of the double stranded molecule of DNA of the bacteria
What does this affect?	bacterial reproduction
What is a commonly used radiation?	ultraviolet radiation
how long do the cells lining the intestine live	1.5 days
how long do white blood cells live	13 days
how long do red blood cells live	130 days
how long do skin cells live	20 hours
how long do nerve cells live	100 years
at any given time, how man cell divisions are occurring in one's body	25 million
what is the sequence of stages cells go through to divide called	cell cycle
what is very important for the cell cycle and what is it important for	it is important for the timing of the cell cycle to be correct. It is important for healing, coordinated growth, and protecting the body from invading microorganisms
how many chromatids do houseflies have	12
how many chromosomes do turkeys have	82
how many chromosomes does a giant redwood have	82
how many chromosomes do prokaryotes have	generally one
each pair of two similarly shaped chromosomes are called a	homologue
what is asexual reproduction also called	mitotic division
how long does mitoses generally take	.5 hours to 1.5 hours
describe what happens in interphase	cells grow and perform normal functions like producing proteins, repair, and maintenance.
G1 stage	cell growth and normal cell functions occur and cellular organelles are duplicated
S stage	also called the synthesis stage, DNA is replicated, and proteins are synthesized
G2 stage	chromatin begins to coil to be differentiated as chromosomes. as a result, chromosomes become more visible
describe phrophase	chromosomes become more visible and double. the two chromatids are attached together with the centromere. two centrioles move to opposite ends of the nucleus and spindle apparatus, also know as spindle fibers, are formed.toward the end, the nuclear membrane and cytoskeleton begin to disentagrate
describe metaphase	nuclear membrane completely dissapears and the doubled chromatids line up along the metaphase plate, the center of the cell. the spindle fibers from the centrioles at the opposite ends attach to each doubled chromatids at the centromere
describe anaphase	centromeres split and each half of the doubled chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of the cell. once the chromosomes move to opposite ends, the nuclear membrane forms around each set of identical chromosomes at opposite ends. chromosomes begin to uncoil and cytokinesis begins
telophase	chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin and cytokinesis is completed to form two identical daughter cells
budding	an offspring grows out of the body of a parent, giving rise to an identical prodigy
where is budding commonly seen	yeast
epitoky	the organism grows and self amputates, usually the posterior part, which regenerates into a new organism
where is epitoky commonly seen	marine worms
binary fission	one bacterial cell divides into two smaller cells, which grow to original size
where are the spermatozoa stored	epididymis
where does spermatogenesis begin	seminferous tubules
how much colder does the testis have to be relative to the rest of the body	2 degrees celsius
what can spermatogenesis be affected by	lack of vitamins A B and E, steroids, heavy metals, sexually transmitted disease, overly tight undergarments, drugs, smoking, dioxin, and alcohol
when does oogenesis begin and when does it stop for a while	it begins during 5 months of conception and stops at prophase 1
the two types of twins	monozygotic, dizygotic
type of twins that are identical, why?	monozygotic, because they have the same genetic material (DNA)
Why do monozygotic twins have the same DNA?	They come from the same zygote, when the zygote divides, the child cells are normally attached (because it is multicellular), in the case of monozygotic twins, the child cells split from one another forming two embryos
what is a zygote	a fertilized egg
after what day does the zygote have to divide in order to most likely have conjoined twins?	the 13th day
are multiple births common in primates and humans?	no, very rare
what are dizygotic twins? how do they form?	non-identical twins, simply share mother's uterus. formed when two sperms fertilize two different oocytes (ovum)
which form of twins run along family lines?	dizygotic twins
what occurs more in women in their 30's	having dizygotic twins
how is a hermaphrodite formed?	two zygotes one male, the other female fuse together to form one embryo with both male and female genitalia
why do some researchers think the rate of hermaphrodites is increasing?	in vitro fertilization is becoming more popular, often two or more embryos are placed in the uterus, these can fuse
is true hermaphroditism in humans rare?	yes, very rare
what is pseudohermaphroditic	when an embryo is exposed to large amounts of hormones for the other gender, if a female is exposed to high levels of androgens, it can grow a primary male sex organ. With males, one can be born with a false vagina, at puberty this can be loses and replaced by a penis
where is the best place to fill all of your custom woodworking and locker shelf needs?	Zern Woodworking
Mitosis	The type of cell division that occurs in all somatic cells
Somatic	All cells that are not sex cells, have a diploid # of chromosomes
Diploid, 2n	Cells that have a pair or two sets of chromosomes
Haploid, n	Cells that have only one set of chromosomes
How many phases of mitosis are there?	5
Name the Phases of mitosis in order	Interphase-Prophase-Metaphase-Anaphase-Telophase
Interphase	the longest phase cells grow and perform functions, like repair, maintenance, and produce proteins *has 3 stages
Name the 3 stages of interphase in order	G1, S, G2
G1 stage	Cell growth and normal cell functions occur all cellular organelles are duplicated
S stage	'synthesis stage' Proteins are made *DNA is replicated
G2 stage	Chromatin coils to be differentiated as chromosomes chromosomes become visible
When the chromosomes become visible in G2 stage, what does this signal?	that the cells are ready to divide
Prophase	Chromosomes become more visible and double 2 centrioles move to opposite ends of the nucleus and the spindle fibers/apparatus is formed *the nuclear membrane and cytoskeleton BEGINS to disintegrate
Centromere	Protein that holds chromatids together
Cytoskeleton	Intercellular connections, made of fat
Metaphase	Nuclear membrane completely disappears doubled chromatids line up along metaphase plate *spindle fibers from the centrioles at each end of the nucleus attach to each doubled chromatid at the centromere
What is the metaphase plate?	the center of the cell
Anaphase	Centromere splits and each half of the doubled chromatids are pulled to opposite ends of the cell a nuclear membrane forms around each set of identical chromosomes at opposite ends *Chromosomes begin to uncoil and cytokinesis begins
What are spindle fibers made up of?	fat
Cytokinesis	Division of the cytoplasm
Telophase	Chromosomes completely uncoil to form chromatin cytokinesis is completed to form two identical daughter cells
What are the two division that meiosis is divided into?	meiosis-I and meiosis-II
What are the the phases of meiosis-I?	interphase-I, prophase-I, metaphase-I, anaphase-I, telophase-I
What are the the phases of meiosis-II?	interphase-II, prophase-II, metaphase-II, anaphase-II, telophase-II
Interphase-I	Same as mitosis
Prophase-I	Chromosomes double and become visible Crossing over between the chromosomes occur, leading to genetic recombination In Oogenesis it stops at this stage until puberty Everything else same as Mitosis
'Crossing over'	Process where segments of DNA are exchanged by chromosomes *This contributes to greater genetic variability
Metaphase-I	Same as mitosis
Anaphase-I	The Centromere DOES NOT split, one set of chromosomes go to one side the other set to the other *Everything else same as mitosis
Telophase-I	Chromosomes uncoil and cytokinesis is completed 2 daughter DIPLOID cells are formed End of Meosis-I
Interphase-II	Normal cell functions Chromosomes begin to coil DNA not replicated
Prophase-II	DNA not replicated Otherwise same as mitosis
Metaphase-II	Same as Mitosis
Anaphase-II	Chromosomes begin to uncoil *Same as Mitosis, otherwise
Telophase-II	Now 4, I repeat, 4 daughter cells are formed *In case of males 4 sperm is created
In case of females what is the result of Meosis-II?	One large ovum and 3 other polar bodies are formed Then the three polar bodies disintegrate to leave one large Ovum
What decides which polar bodies will be the Single ovum?	Usually the one that is the healthiest, with the most cytoplasm, which is also usually the largest
How long do intestine cells live for?	1.5 days
How long do white blood cells live for?	13 days
How long do red blood cells live for?	130 days
How long do skin cells live for?	20 hours
How long do nerve cells live for?	100 years
How many cell divisions take place in the body at any given time?	25 million
What is it called when cells divide?	the cell cycle
What are the two types of cell division?	mitotic and meiotic
Where does mitotic division occur?	in all somatic cells
Where does meiotic division occur?	in sex cells
How many chromosomes do house flies have?	12
How many chromosomes do turkeys have?	82
How many chromosomes do giant redwood have?	82
How many chromosomes do prokaryotes generally have?	one
What is asexual reproduction also know as?	epitoky, binary fission, and budding
What happens in sexual reproduction?	each parent contributes one set of chromosomes to the offspring
What do each parent produce?	gametes
What are gametes?	reproductive cells
How do reproductive cells keep the number of chromosomes the same from generation to generation?	they only have one chromosome from the homologous pair
In human cells how long does it take to complete one division (mitosis)?	30-90 minutes
Where does spermatogenesis take place?	in the testicles in the epididymis
What does spermatogenesis result in?	the formation of four sperm cells or spermatozoa
Where does spermatogenisis usually begin?	in the seminferous tubules, which are tubes in the center of the testicle
What is spermatogenesis highly influenced by?	temperature and hormones
What is the hormone needed to drive spermatogenesis?	testosterone
scrotum	bag of skin that holds the testis
What should the temperature of the scrotum be?	2 degrees C below the body's temperature
What can spermatogenesis be affected by?	lack of vitamins such as A, B, and E, steroids, heavy metals, sexualy transmitted disease, overly tight undergarments, drugs, smoking, dioxin, and alcohol
Where does oogenesis take place?	in the ovary
What does oogenesis result in?	the formation of one ovum (oocyte) and three polar bodies
What does the polar bodies do, and what is the resultant cell?	disintegrate, one ovum
What are the cells that undergo oogenesis called?	oogonia
When does oogenesis begin?	five months after conception
When do immature sex cells begin to develop?	in the fetal ovaries, but stop at an early stage of
Where do they remain?	in this stage until puberty
In this, what do hormones cause?	a resumption of meiosis for one to several cells per month
Where is the egg released into?	the fallopian tube
Where does fertilization usually take place?	in the fallopian tube
What happens once fertilization occurs?	the cilia in the fallopian tube help move the egg to the uterus where development takes place
Budding	where the offspring grows out of the parent
What does this create?	an identical progeny
What type of reproduction is most commonly seen in yeast?	budding
Epitoky	where the organism grows and self amputates, usually the posterior part
What does the posterior part regenerate into?	a new organism
Where is epitoky commonly seen in?	marine worms
Where is binary fission commonly seen in?	bacteria
What happens in binary fission?	one bacteria cell divides into two smaller cells and each cell grows back into its original size
Mitosis	The type of cell division that occurs in all somatic cells
Somatic	All cells that are not sex cells, have a diploid # of chromosomes
Diploid, 2n	Cells that have a pair or two sets of chromosomes
Haploid, n	Cells that have only one set of chromosomes
How many phases of mitosis are there?	5
Name the Phases of mitosis in order	Interphase-Prophase-Metaphase-Anaphase-Telophase
Interphase	the longest phase cells grow and perform functions, like repair, maintenance, and produce proteins *has 3 stages
Name the 3 stages of interphase in order	G1, S, G2
G1 stage	Cell growth and normal cell functions occur all cellular organelles are duplicated
S stage	'synthesis stage' Proteins are made *DNA is replicated
G2 stage	Chromatin coils to be differentiated as chromosomes chromosomes become visible
When the chromosomes become visible in G2 stage, what does this signal?	that the cells are ready to divide
Prophase	Chromosomes become more visible and double 2 centrioles move to opposite ends of the nucleus and the spindle fibers/apparatus is formed *the nuclear membrane and cytoskeleton BEGINS to disintegrate
Centromere	Protein that holds chromatids together
Cytoskeleton	Intercellular connections, made of fat
Metaphase	Nuclear membrane completely disappears doubled chromatids line up along metaphase plate *spindle fibers from the centrioles at each end of the nucleus attach to each doubled chromatid at the centromere
What is the metaphase plate?	the center of the cell
Anaphase	Centromere splits and each half of the doubled chromatids are pulled to opposite ends of the cell a nuclear membrane forms around each set of identical chromosomes at opposite ends *Chromosomes begin to uncoil and cytokinesis begins
What are spindle fibers made up of?	fat
Cytokinesis	Division of the cytoplasm
Telophase	Chromosomes completely uncoil to form chromatin cytokinesis is completed to form two identical daughter cells
...	*two DNA strands form a helical spiral, winding around a helix axis in a right-handed spiral
...	*the two polynucleotide chains run in opposite directions
....	*the sugar-phosphate backbones of the two DNA strands wind around the helix axis like the railing of a spiral staircase
...	*the bases of the individual nucleotides are on the inside of the helix, stacked on top of each other like the steps of a spiral staircase
...	*double stranded molecule, which has a 5-carbon sugar and phosphate backbone and the nitrogenous bases. A always pairs with T, G with C
What is protein synthesis?	the process of making proteins by using the information present in the DNA
What do proteins help with?	regulating various cell functions
What do some proteins become that are structional?	muscle tissue, wall of blood vessels, and membranes in which proteins are transported
What do some proteins, like enzymes do?	control vital chemical reactions like the breakdown of glucose to ATP during cellular respiration
Where is hemaglobin present? And what is it?	in the blood, and it is a type of protein that helps in the transport of oxygen throughout the body
What is the cell membrane and inter cell communication made out of?	fat
What is within the nucleus?	the nucleolus
What is in the nucleolus?	chromosomes
What do chromosomes contain?	information encoded as DNA
What is present within the entire molecule of DNA?	various genes
There is a specific gene to produce every _______ your body will ever need.	protein
What is the information encoded in?	the form of nucleotides of the DNA double helix
What are the sun and stars made up of?	hydrogen
What is iron needed for?	to attach to oxygen, that your body needs
What does the hemaglobin have to be to attach to iron?	straight
What is a gene?	a segment of DNA that has specific information to make a protein
Gene	functional segment of DNA that has specific information to make a protein
What gives a cell type its character?	the different genes that are activated, to create a specific protein to give that cell its characteristics
How many regions is a gene divided into?	3
Name the regions of a gene.	1.Promotor region 2.Coding region 3.Termination region
Promoter Region	1st region of a gene, turns gene on and off, informs the gene when protein synthesis must begin
What is needed for the promoter region to turn on/off the gene?	a stimuli, such as a chemical message from the brain, the message is sent from the brain then attaches to the promoter region which then turns on the gene
Coding region	2nd region of gene, where the actual information to make the protein is stored.
Termination Region	3rd, last region of a gene, signals the end of the gene
The process of protein synthesis occurs in __ steps namely _________ and __________	Two steps, Transcription and Translation
Trans:_______ Script:____________	1.changing 2. letters, changing letters
The process of Transcription results in:	the synthesis of RNA(ribonucleic acid)
RNA	Ribonucleic acid, a single stranded structure, a decoded form of DNA
What sugar is present in RNA?	ribose sugar( a 5-carbon sugar)
Name the four nitrogenous bases in RNA	Adenine, Cytosine, Guanine and Uracil
Uracil	One of the four nitrogenous bases in RNA, but not DNA, forms a base pair with Adenine and replaces thymine
Name the 3 types of RNA involved in protein synthesis.	1. messenger RNA, mRNA 2. ribosomal RNA, rRNA 3. transfer RNA, tRNA
messenger RNA(mRNA)	a complementary strand of RNA. From a template strand of DNA, it brings the information from the DNA to the cytoplasm, where protein synthesis takes place.
ribosomal RNA(rRNA)	the central component of ribosomes, clamps on to mRNA and uses the info to make amino acids
transfer RNA(tRNA)	transfers the codons on the mRNA, to be turned into amino acids by an enzyme, the amino acids are turned into proteins
In Eukaryotic cells transcription takes place in the__________	Nucleus
In Prokaryotic cells transcription takes place in the__________	cytoplasm
template strand	The DNA strand where the code needs to be transcripted.
RNA polymerase	an enzyme responsible for the synthesis of RNA, first it initiates the promoter region on the template DNA, then it reads the bases on the template DNA and begins to code a complementary strand on RNA base by base
primary transcript	single RNA strand, made by RNA polymerase, strand of RNA complementary, to the template DNA, a 'rough draft'
Where does translation take place?	in the cytoplasm
What is translation the process of?	converting the sequence of nucleotides present in the mRNA to amino acids
What are amino acids?	basic structural units of proteins
In eukaryotic cells, where is mRNA made?	in the nucleus
Where does the mRNA then travel?	to the ribosomes present in the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores on the nuclear membrane
What happens when the mRNA enters the cytoplasm?	it attaches to the rRNA present on the ribosome
What does this form?	an mRNA-ribosome complex
Where does translation begin?	from one end of the mRNA
What happens during translation?	the genetic code on the mRNA is read three bases at a time in units called codons
What are interferons?	a type of protein that destroys viruses
What does the coding region of a gene determine?	what the protein will look like
What region is usually the biggest?	the coding region
What are proteins made up of?	amino acids
How many different types of amino acids are there?	20
What determines the protein?	how the amino acids are arranged
Where are genes present?	on the chromosomes
What is the second step of protein synthesis?	translation
Where does translation take place?	in the cytoplasm
What is translation?	the process of converting the sequence of nucleotides present in mRNA to amino acids
In eukaryotic cells, where is mRNA made?	in the nucleus
Where does the mRNA then travel to?	to the ribosomes present in the cytoplasm through the nuclear pores of the nuclear membrane
How many strands does mRNA have?	one
What happens when mRNA enters the cytoplasm?	it attaches to the rRNA present on the ribosome
What does this form?	a mRNA-ribosome complex
Where does translation begin?	from one end of the mRNA
During translation the genetic code on the mRNA is read ______ bases at a time in units called ______.	three, codons
What is translation facilitated by?	by the transfer RNA
What does the tRNA have which are complimentary to ______ on the mRNA?	specific anti codons, codons
What would an anti-codon on a tRNA read, if the codon on the mRNA is AUA?	UAU
What does the tRNA carrying a specific anti-codon pair with?	the first three nucleotides of the mRNA, which is usually AUG
What does AUG signal?	the start of protein synthesis
What happens once the signal is given?	the mRNA slides along the ribosome to the next codon
A _____ tRNA carrying an anti-codon pairs with the ______ ______.	new, second codon
What happens when the first and second codons are in place?	an enzyme converts the codons to amino acids
The process continues, and a ______ of amino acids is formed untill the ______ reaches the ____ codon on the _______ (usually ____).	chain, ribosome, stop, mRNA, UAA
What happens once all the amino acids are formed?	a peptide bond binds the amino acids to form a protein
What the protein usually fold into?	a 3 dimensional structure before it is secreted to carry out its function
What does a complete nucleus have, that a incomplete nucleus doesn't?	a double membrane
Where is the DNA in a eukaryotic cell?	in the nucleus
Where is the DNA in a prokaryotic cell?	in the cytoplasm
What does the nucleolus house?	DNA, RNA, histone proteins
What are the two types of proteins?	proteins made by your body, and proteins that you eat
What are the two types of proteins made by your body?	functional and structional
What are types of functional proteins?	receptor carrier insulin enzymes *hormones
What are types of structional proteins?	hair finger nails histone bone *muscle
What do chromosomes do?	they organize the DNA
What is the 23rd chromosome?	sex chromosome
xy	boy
xx	girl
What does the sry gene do?	it determines primary sex hormones
What is DNA?	the vast chemical information database that carries the complete set of instructions for making all the proteins a cell will ever need
What are within the nucleus?	the chromosomes
What is a function segment of DNA called?	a gene
What happens when our genes are working properly?	our bodies develop and function properly
What is there for every protein?	a particular gene
What would if a single gene or tiny segment of a gene is missing or misplaced? What can this cause?	the effect would be dramatic on the body. deformities, disease, and even death
What are the basic elements that make up DNA?	carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus
What are the units called that make up DNA?	nucleotides
What are nucleotides made up of?	5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, nitrogenous base
What is the simple sugar in DNA called?	deoxyribose
What gives DNA its name: deoxyribonucleic acid?	deoxyribose
What is 5-Carbon sugar composed of?	5 carbon atoms, 10 hydrogen atoms, and 5 oxygen atoms
What type of carbon sugar is glucose? and why?	6-carbon sugar, because it is made up of C6H12O6
deoxyribose has less what than ribose?	oxygen
What are the main atoms that make up your make up your body?	carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (in that order)
What does every nucleotide have?	a different instruction
What are cell made up of?	organelles and structures
What are some examples of carbohydrates?	fructose glucose lactose grains
What is the phosphate group made up of?	one atom of phosphorous and four atoms of oxygen
What element do nitrogenous bases contain?	nitrogen
How many types of nitrogenous bases do DNA molecules contain?	4
What are nitrogenous bases classified into?	purines and pyrimidines
What are the 2 types of purines?	adenine and guanine
What are the two types of pyrimidines?	thymine and cytosine
What are adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine referred as?	A, G, T, C
Since there are four nitrogenous bases, they can combine with __________ and a _________ _______ to form four possible _________.	5-carbon sugar, phosphate group, nucleotides
Within the human DNA molecule, there are ________ of bases in ______ combinations.	millions, various
What do the 5-carbon sugar and the phosphate group form of the DNA?	the backbone
What are the nitrogenous bases attached to?	the backbone like the steps of a ladder
Adenine always pairs with what?	thymine
Guanine always pairs with what?	cytosine
What is always equal in this?	the number of adenine and thymine, and the number of guanine and cytosine
What does every cell in your body contain?	the same DNA
What is an exception to this?	mature blood cells which have no nucleus
How many molecules of stranded DNA does each cell have?	46
How many bases is each molecule made up of?	50-250 million
What is within the DNA?	genes
What is a gene?	any segment of the DNA that has a specific function
How many sets of chromosomes do human cells have?	two
Where are the chromosomes inherited by?	the mother and the father
How many chromosomes do all human cells have? (except for sex cell)	23 pairs
How many chromosomes do sex cells have?	23
What are twenty-two of them called? The 23rd?	autosomes, sex chromosome
What does every chromosome have?	a certain size or shape
What are the 2 types of sex cells?	ovum and sperm
Why would a female be XY?	because the Y doesn't have the sry gene
What is a male characteristic?	tubular body
What hormones do both males and females have?	progesterone and testosterone
What is within the chromosomes?	DNA
How many chromosomes do humans have?	46
What is the human male sex cell called?	sperm
What is the human female sex cell called?	ovum
How many strands do DNA have?	2
How many autosomes do humans have?	44
What are the sex chromosomes present in human males called?	X and Y
What are the sex chromosomes present in human females called?	X and X
When, who, and what did two people discover about the DNA structure?	1953, James Watson and Francis Crick, that DNA is made up of two chains of nucleotides
What hold the strands of DNA together?	nitrogenous bases
Why can the two strands be held together?	because they are complimentary to each other
Adenine on one strand, bonds with the what?	thymine on the other strand
Guanine on one strand, bonds with the what?	cytosine on the other strand
What does this explain?	that adenine and thymine, and guanine and cytosine are present in equal amounts
What did the Watson and Crick model also propose?	that DNA is shaped like a long zipper that is twisted
What is its shape called?	a double helix
What are the 5 parts of the Watson and Crick discovery of DNA?	two DNA strands form a helical spiral, winding around a helix axis in a right-handed spiral the two polynucleotide chains run in opposite directions the sugar-phosphate backbones of the two DNA strands wind around the helix axis like the railing of a spiral staircase the bases of the individual nucleotides are on the inside oof the helix, stacked on top of each other like the steps of a spiral staircase *double stranded molecule, which has a 5-carbon sugar and phosphate backbone and the nitrogenous bases. A always pairs with T, G with C
What is DNA replication?	a process by which the cell's DNA makes a copy of itself before undergoing cell division
What happens when the cell divides?	both cells get a copy of the DNA
What would happen without DNA replication?	new cells would only have half the DNA of their parents
What does DNA replication begin with?	a partial unwinding of the double helix at an area known as the replication fork
What enzyme accomplishes this unwinding of the helix?	the DNA helicase
What happens when the DNA helicase unwinds the double helix?	the bases are exposed
Where does the enzyme by the name of DNA polymerase move?	into position at the point where synthesis of the new strand will begin
What does DNA polymerase do?	it reads the sequence of bases on the template strand (old strand) and then synthesizes the complementary strand (new strand.
What happens since each new strand in complementary to its old template strand?	two identical new copies of the DNA double helix are produced during replication
What is in each new helix?	one strand is the old template and the other is the newly synthesized strand
What enzyme brings the new and the old strand together?	ligase
nucleus	a double membranous organelle that houses DNA
nuclear membrane	the outer layer of the nucleus
nuclear pores	tiny pores on the nuclear membrane. The nucleus communicates with rest of the cell through these pores
Ribosomes	small grain-like structures present on the nuclear membrane, these are sites of protein synthesis
Chromatin	a dense granular material within the nucleus that contains chromosomes
Chromosomes	the organized structures of DNA. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in every cell except sex cell, where there is 23 chromosomes
nucleolus	the dense granular where DNA, RNA, and histone proteins are present
mitochondria	the powerhouse of the cell, a slipper shaped doubles membrane structure
ribosomes	small grain like structure that are sites of proteins synthesis, they are found in the cytoplasm, rough endoplasmic reticulum, and on the nuclear evidence
Endoplasmic Reticulum	an extensive network of membranous sacs, that are involved in the transport and processing of proteins
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum	has ribosomes on their membranous sacs, the proteins synthesized on the ribosomes enter the endoplasmic reticulum and are transported out of the cell
smooth endoplasmic reticulum	lack ribosomes, responsible for the synthesis of lipids and helps in the detoxification of drugs and poisons
golgi bodies	stacks of flattened membranous sacs that resembles a stack of pancakes
plastids	double membranous organelles found in plants and algae, involved in photosynthesis. two types: leucoplasts and chloroplasts
chloroplasts	doubles membranous organelles with an inner and outer membrane, the inner membrane contains a thick fluid called stroma. in the stroma are stacks of discs call grana
vacuoles	membranous sacs that help in the absorption of water
lysosomes	membranous sacs that contain hydrolyctic enzymes
centrioles	specialized tubular organelles found mostly in animal cells, they play an important role in cell division
cytoplasm	a gel-like fluid present within the cell, all cellular reactions take place here
What are all cells surrounded by?	a cell membrane
What is the cell membrane also called?	plasma membrane
The cell membrane is the boundary that.....	maintains conditions suitable for the life of the cell by regulating or controlling the passage of materials into and out of the cell
Cell exist in a ____ _______ of shapes.	wide variety
Plant cells are more of what shape, and why?	rigid and box-like, because of the presence of the cell wall
What shapes do animal cells come in, and why?	different shapes, because the fluidity of the cell membrane, which is their only outer structure
What type of membrane is the cell membrane?	semi-permeable
What is a semi-permeable membrane?	it allows certain substances to pass through freely, and restricts others completely
What is the cell membrane mostly made up of?	a bilayer of phospholipids and proteins
bilayer	two layers
What protrudes from the outer surface of the cell membrane?	various carbohydrates
What are the carbohydrates attached to?	proteins or phospholipids
What is a carbohydrate attached to a protein called?	glycoprotein
What is a carbohydrate attached to a phospholipid called?	glycolipid
What do the carbohydrates act as?	receptors
What do carbohydrates receive?	communications from other cells, and they detect chemical changes in their surroundings
What are the major components of the cell membrane?	phospholipids, carbohydrates, and proteins
What are the five functions of the cell membrane?	1. protects the cell by acting as a barrier 2. regulates the transport of substances in and out of the cell 3. receives chemical messengers from other cell 4. acts as a receptor 5. cell mobility, secretions, and absorptions of substances
What two things does the bilayer of phospholipids have?	a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail
What does the hydrophilic head have?	an affinity for water
What does the hydrophobic tail have?	an aversion to water
What does the phospholipids portion of the cells membrane block the passage of?	most of the molecules except water and a few ions
What controls the entry and exit of substances?	the cell membrane
Do proteins play a role in cell recognition?	yes
Who won a Nobel Prize in 1973, and why did they win it?	Joseph Goldstein and Michael Brown, for their discovery of how carbohydrates present on the cell membrane control the level of cholesterol in the human blood
What did Joseph Goldstein and Michael Brown prove?	that glycoproteins protruding from the cell membrane bind to cholesterol particles that circulate in the blood and take them to the cell to make cell membrane
What is cholesterol a key factor in?	the production of hormones like testosterones, progesterone, and bile which, helps in the digestion of fat
What happens if these particles are not taken into the cell?	they could build up in blood vessels and lead to atherosclerosis or narrowing of the arteries which can lead to a heart attack
The greater number of ________ on the cell membrane, the more ___________ containing particles are removed from the blood	glycoprotein, cholesterol
How many glycoproteins on the cell membrane, are in a normal cell?	about 20,000
How many people out of how many people have an abnormally small number of glycoproteins on the cell membrane?	1 in 500 people
If you are one of those people what do you have?	a higher risk of heart attack
Can people with a normal gene have high cholesterol levels?	yes, because when the cell's cholesterol needs are met, the glycoproteins shut off
How do substances move in and out of the cell?	two methods: active and passive transport
What happens during active transport?	substances move against the concentration gradient , from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration
What does the transportation of molecules require?	energy
Since they move against the concentration gradient during active transport, what is used to move substances?	energy in the form of adenosine tri phosphate
What happens during passive transport?	substances move along the concentration gradient
Why is this type of transport called passive transport?	because energy is not required to move molecules
What is transported against the concentration gradient?	sugar molecules and proteins
Does active transport take place in all cells?	yes, and in some cells it accounts for more than half of the cell's energy expenditure
What is an example of active transport?	the sodium-potassium pump
What happens during this transport?	3 sodium ions are pumped to the outside of the cell for each 2 potassium ions that moves into the cell
What takes place in all human cells? And what cells is especially in	the sodium-potassium pump, especially nerve and muscle cells
What is used to operate the sodium-potassium pump?	one third of the body's energy expenditure
What are two types of active transport that move large molecules across the cell membrane?	exocytosis and endocytosis
Exocytosis	a type of active transport where molecules are exported out of the cell.
Before the molecules are sent out of the cell in exocytosis, they must first be what?	surrounded by a membrane which is called the secretion vesicle
What are some examples of exocytosis?	production and release of materials required for the construction of cell wall, and the production and release of hormones
Endocytosis	a type of active transport were substances are brought into the cell
What are two types of endocytosis?	phagocytosis and pinocytosis
Pinocytosis	it is like cellular drinking
What happens during pinocytosis?	small vesicles form out of the plasma membrane and carry liquid or smaller molecules into the cell from outside
Phagocytosis	equivalent to cellular eating
What happens during phagocytosis?	large molecules or small unicellular organisms are taken into the cell
What is an example of phagocytosis?	the engulfing of bacterium by ameba. the ameba encloses the bacterium and releases enzymes to digest it. the nutrients are absorbed by the ameba, and the unabsorbed waste is discharged by exocytosis
phospholipids	a type of fat
phil	like
phob	dislike
hydra	water
What is cholesterol used to make?	cell membrane, sex hormones, vitamin D, and bile
What does bile do?	breaks down fat
Where do glycoproteins take cholesterol?	into the cell
What foods are high in potassium	avocados and bananas
How much percent of the cells energy is used to take in potassium?	25%
Where are the beta cells?	in the pancreas
What does APC stand for?	antigen present in cells
What happens when a white blood cell sees a new bacteria?	it will locate, engulf, and disintegrate it slowly, the second time it goes much faster. this is called cell recognition
What is macrophage?	a type of immune cell
gradient	high to low
What are the three types of passive transport?	diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis
What is diffusion dependent on?	the concentration gradient
Does diffusion need energy?	no
As molecules diffuse from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration, what happens?	the concentration eventually becomes equal
What happens when concentration evens out?	it reaches equilibrium
equilibrium	equal distribution
What is able to diffuse through the cell membrane?	small molecules such as water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen
What are the factors affecting the rate of diffusion?	state of matter concentration gradient and slope of concentration gradient size of molecules temperature
What are the three state of matter?	solid, liquid, gas
What are the rates for state of matter from slowest to fastest	solid liquids *gases
Concentration	the number of particles or ions present in a given space
ions	charged particles
What can the difference in the concentration gradient affect?	the rate of diffusion
The _________ the difference in concentration between the high and low regions, the _________ the molecules will diffuse.	greater, faster
The rate of diffusion increases with what?	an increase in temperature
What happens when heat is applied?	molecules absorb energy and tend to move along the concentration gradient
Where does tea diffuse faster? Hot or Cold water?	hot water
Which molecules diffuse faster?	smaller
Smaller molecules are less likely to what?	collide with opposing larger molecules when they move from a region of more to a region of less
What happens during facilitated diffusion?	substances move along the concentration gradient, however during this, proteins called carrier proteins help in the transport of substances
Why are carrier proteins required during facilitated diffusion?	to move molecules larger than water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen into the cell
What do carrier proteins form?	channels through the cell membrane to facilitate the movement of larger molecules
How do the carrier proteins help?	by increasing the rate of diffusion
Osmosis	the diffusion of water through a semi permeable membrane from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
How are water molecules able to move freely through the cell membrane?	because they are very small and can easily pass through
How is the direction of the flow of water determined?	by the amount of solute and solvent present inside and outside of the cell
When water moves into a cell as result of osmosis, it creates pressure within the cell, called what?	osmotic pressure or the force of osmosis
Solutions	homogeneous mixtures of two or more substances
What is a solution usually made up of?	liquids
mixture	the result of the combination of a solvent and solute
solute	the substance that is dissolved in another substance
solvent	the substance in which the solute is dissolved
What is the most common of solvents?	water
What are solutions with water as the solvents called?	aqueous solutions
What is an example of a gas mixing with a liquid?	club soda
What does the amount of solute and solvent present in a solution determine?	the concentration of the solution
During osmosis, the direction of the flow of water depends on what?	the solute/solvent concentration
tonicity	the relative concentration of solute on either side of a cell membrane
Based on tonicity there are three types of solutions, which are:	hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic
hypertonic solution	a solution that has a high solute concentration and less solvent concentration compared to the outside environment
What is an example of a hypertonic solution?	in a hypertonic salt solution, there is more salt than water
What happens when cells are placed in a hypertonic salt solution?	water molecules will move out of the cell and salt molecules will move into the cell
What is the marine environment?	a hypertonic solution for many organisms
What do these animals have?	special mechanisms to prevent water from leaving their cell and hence prevent dehydration due to loss of water
What do animal cells undergo, when they are placed in a hypertonic solution?	crenation
crenation	where the cell shrivels up as it loses water molecules, and salt molecules enter the cell
What do plant cells undergo, when they are placed in a hypertonic solution?	plasmolysis
plasmolysis	where the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall as the cell shrinks due to loss of water
Why does the cell not lose its shape during plasmolysis?	because the cell wall is a rigid structure
hypotonic solution	one that has less solute and more solvent compared to the outside environment
What happens to cells in a hypotonic solution?	they gain water because there is more water outside of the the cell than inside of the cell
What can happen to animal cells in a hypotonic solution?	they can lyse or rupture
Why will the animal cells rupture?	water diffuses into the cell as a result of osmosis, and since animal cells don't have a cell wall, the cell membrane will rupture due to increased osmotic pressure
Where do freshwater organisms live? What is their tendency?	in a hypotonic solution, to gain water
What do these organisms have?	special mechanisms that prevent rupturing
What does the contractile vacuole in freshwater protozan remove?	water that enters the cell
What cells do not tend to rupture?	plant cells, and cells with a cell wall
What is osmotic pressure also called?	turgor pressure
isotonic solution	the concentration of solute is the same on both sides of the membrane, inside and outside of the cell
What happens to a cell that is placed in an isotonic solution?	it neither gains or loses water
red blood cells are very vulnerable to changes in concentration because...	they don't have any mechanism to remove excess water
How can shrinking or bursting of red blood cells be prevented?	blood plasma or the blood fluid should be isotonic
energy	What does a single cell need?
the basic structural unit in life	What is the cell?
cellula	What Latin word does cell come from?
small room or cubicle	What does cellula mean?
size and shape	Cells vary in what?
a bacterial cell - 10 micrometers unfertilized ostrich egg - about 6 by 4 inches	Cells can be as a small and as large as what?
an organism	Each cell acts as what?
trillions of different cells	We (humans) are what?
one cell	What were we once in life?
multiply, reproduce	What do fertilized ovum do?
mother	What do we look like more? Our mother or father?
1000	A bacteria cell is how much smaller than a human cell.
storage cells	What type of cells are onion cells?
conduct respiration remove metabolic waste convert complex molecules to energy communicate with one another and divide to give rise to new cells	What does each cell do?
genes	Every cell in your body has what?
a certain function	A born cell has to be a certain shape or size because of what?
as big as a grain of rice	How big are we at 2 months?
a function	Every gene has what?
the structure of the food	What does a microwave change?
at least 90%	How much percent of your genes need to be fired to survive?
million years	Modern bacteria has been around for the past...
modern bacteria	monera
4.5 billion years	How old is archae?
in the rocks	Where is sulfur present?
food turns it into energy which leads to reproduction	What did the sulfur bacteria need? What did it do with it?
sulfur find more food, Carbon Dioxide	What was the sulfur bacteria used to using? What did they have to do?
photosynthetic bacteria	What did sulfur bacteria start using?
oxygen	In the process of photosynthesis, what is released?
DNA	Prokaryotic cell have simpler...
animals, plants, fungi, protista	What are the 4 kingdoms Eukaryotic cells have?
multicellular	Almost all fungi are what? Unicellular or multicellular?
yeast	What is the only fungi that is unicellular
Photosynthesis	Organisms that can't move conduct...
move, conduct photosynthesis, and devour other organisms	Rare organisms can do what?
forest floor, a damp place	Where is slime mold found?
Eukaryotic, unicellular, animal-like, protist	What is plasmodium?
unicellular	All protists are what?
a nucleoid	What is bacterial DNA called?
very thin	membrane
smaller in size, less information needed	What does simpler DNA mean?
more DNA	more instruction equal to what?
because it it efficient , takes up less space	Why does a cell have a super coiled structure?
bacteria DNA = incomplete nucleus = nucleoid =lacking membrane bound nucleus	What do prokaryotic DNA turn into?
sexual reproduction	What is the opposite of asexual reproduction?
to make new protein	What is protein synthesis?
because there are some proteins you can't get from food, nonessential protein	Why does the cell do protein synthesis?
Essential protein is the protein you get from food, you don't need other protein because your cells makes it for you	What does the term, "nonessential protein" mean?
more information	What does every function mean?
46	How many chromosomes are in each human cell?
sex cell, (sperm and egg)	Which cell are there 23 chromosomes?
an organelle which mainly houses DNA	What is the nucleus?
monerans which belong to the kingdom monera	Bacteria are also called what?
nucleoid	The incomplete nucleus present in prokaryotic cells is also called what?
Plant like Eukaryotic Protists, chlorophyll shaped like a ribbon, chlorophyll is a green pigment that helps absorb sunlight to conduct photo synthesis
photosynthetic Plant like Eukaryotic Protists, cells look like a beaded necklace
Plant like Eukaryotic Protists, lives in a colony, entire colony of cells move in a circular motion
Plant like Eukaryotic Protists, has an important role in fixing atmospheric nitrogen, can convert gaseous nitrogen present in the atmosphere to solid nitrates
Plant like Eukaryotic Protists, can conduct photosynthesis, move, make energy
Plant like Eukaryotic Protists, green filamentous cell that conduct photosynthesis
Animal like Eukaryotic Protists, have pseudopods or false feet, pseudopods are formed when contents in the cell moves from one region to another
Animal like Eukaryotic Protists, has tiny hair called cilia which facilitates motion
Animal like Eukaryotic Protists, shaped like a horn, cilia like structures help sweep food into the stentor
Animal like Eukaryotic Protists, has cellular extensions that help trap other organisms
Multicellular Eukaryotic Plant cell
Multicellular Eukaryotic Animal cell
Multicellular Eukaryotic Fungus cell
Nitrogen Phosphorus *Potassium	Plants require what three elements to conduct photosynthesis.
a membrane bound nucleus	What do Prokaryotic Cells lack?
bacteria, archae	Prokaryotic cells are grouped into what two families?
Ecoli and strep throat	What are examples of bacteria?
photosynthetic and thermophilic bacteria	What are some examples archae?
bacteria, methenogenic, archaen, and cyanobacteria	What are 4 examples of prokaryotic cells?
mitochondria	Bacteria are about the size of ________?
binary fission	How do bacteria divide?
a type of asexual reproduction whereby one cell divides into other cells	What is binary fission?
myxobacteria	Bacteria are unicellular except for _______ which is multicellular
a membrane-enclosed nucleus	What do eukaryotic cells have?
a double membranous organelle that houses DNA	What is a nucleus?
the outer layer of a nucleus	What is the nuclear membrane?
tiny pores on the nuclear membrane. the nucleus communicates with the rest of the cell through these pores	Nuclear pores
small grain-like structures present on the nuclear envelope	What are ribosomes?
on the ribosomes	Where is protein made?
a dense granular material within the nucleus that contains chromosomes	What is the Chromatin?
organized structure of DNA	What are Chromosomes?
a dense granular region where DNA, RNA (ribo nucleic acid) and proteins called histones are present	What is the nucleolus?
maintain DNA structure	What do histone proteins help with?
mitochondria	What is called the powerhouse of a cell?
cristae	The inner membrane has many folds to form what?
matrix	What gel like substance is in between the compartments of the cristae?
300-800	Cells have how many mitochondria
captured bacteria	It is believed that mitochondria is what?
DNA duplicate	Mitochondria contain their own _____________ and can _________ on their own
because cellular respiration takes place there	Why are mitochondria called the powerhouse of the cell?
Adenosine Tri Phosphate	What does cellular respiration result in?
a nucleoid	What is a prokaryotic cell's DNA called?
RNA and proteins	what are ribosomes made out of?
ribonucleic acid	what is RNA?
the rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum	what is involved in the transport and processing of proteins?
an extensive network of membranous sacs	what is a description of this organelle?
ribosomes	what does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum lack?
the synthesis of lipids and the detoxification of drugs and poisons	what is the smooth endo. retic. responsible for?
flattened membranous sacs that resemble a stack of pancakes curled at the edges	describe golgi bodies
6CO2	for photosynthesis, how much carbon dioxide is needed?
12H2O	for photosynthesis, how much water is needed?
6H12O6	for photosynthesis, how much glucose is in the waste?
6H2O	for photosynthesis, how much water is in the waste?
6O2	for photosynthesis, how much oxygen is in the waste?
a process where CO2 and water, in the presence of sunlight, are converted to glucose and oxygen	What is photosynthesis?
the chloroplast	What does the photosynthetic process use?
plant roots absorb water and nutrients and transport them to the leaves where they are distributed to all the cells	What happens during the day?
atmosphere openings on the underside of the leaves called stomata	Where is CO2 present, and where does it enter the leaf
leaves	What are the major organs of photosynthesis?
circular stacks of discs called grana	What are present within the chloroplast?
glucose and oxygen	CO2, water, and the energy absorbed by the grana form what?
through the veins to other cells where it was converted to energy	Where is glucose transported to?
oxygen	What is the waste product of photosynthesis?
the leaf through the stomata	Where does the oxygen exit?
cellular respiration	What do plants conduct at night?
through the leaf through the stomata and is distributed to all the cells	Where does oxygen enter?
oxygen glucose cytoplasm mitochondria	Within each cell _____ and _____, which is already present in the ______ enter the ______
mitochondria oxygen glucose ATP	In the _____, ______ and _____ is converted to energy in the form of _____
the leaf through the stomata	Where does CO2 exit?