ap psych ch 11 and 12
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160 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 motivation | a need or desire that serves to energize or direct behavior |
| primary drives | hunger, thirst, need to sleep, drive to reproduce |
| secondary drives | desire to obtain learned reinforcers |
| olds and milner | found that rats would press a bar to send a pulse into certain areas of the brain and limbic system |
| limbic system must play role in motivation and dopamine must be related to reward | conclusions from olds and milner's experiments |
| instinct theory | the learning of species-specific behavior motivates organisms to do what's necessary for survival |
| arousal theory | there's an optimum level of arousal (alertness) at which performance is optimal, and correlates with nervous system activity |
| yerkes-dodson law | tasks of moderate difficulty elicit the highest level of performance. high levels of arousal for easy tasks and low levels for difficult tasks are preferred |
| the opponent process theory | we aren't motivated until we encounter pleasurable stimuli. we are motivated to seek that stimuli, after which an opposing motivational force brings us back toward the baseline. the emotional effects wear off, but not the opponent process, so we habituate to the stimulus. |
| the drive-reduction theory | psychological needs put stress on the body and we are motivated to relieve this stress. |
| homeostasis | the state of regulatory equilibrium |
| set-point | the target level of anything we need |
| lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus | sends messages to brain to eat less, excercise more |
| lateral hypothalamus | tells brain to eat more and drink |
| hypothalamus | controls feeding |
| leptin | released in response to a buildup of fat cells, which is interpreted in the hypothalamus |
| glucostatic hypothesis | as insulin rises, glucose levels lower. to restore glucostatic balance, a person must eat something |
| lipostatic hypothesis | fat is the measured and controlled substance in the body that regulates hunger. |
| anorexia nervosa | individual being 15% below ideal body weight. more common in females. |
| body dysmorphia | distorted body image |
| bulimia nervosa | periods of binging and purging |
| pituitary gland | causes production of sexual hormones. triggered by hypothalamus. |
| androgens | male sex hormone |
| estrogen | female sex hormone |
| biological theory of motivation | behavior is based on instinct and genetic programming |
| humanistic theory of motivation | maslow's hierarchy |
| physiological needs | first level of maslow's hierarchy. food, drink, shelter, sex. |
| safety and security needs | second level of maslow's hierarchy. feel safe from harm. |
| belongingness needs | third level of maslow's hierarchy. social interaction and fulfillment. |
| self-esteem needs | fourth level of maslow's hierarchy. fame, recognition. |
| self-actualization | fifth level of maslow's hierarchy. when people creatively and meaningfully fulfill their own potential. |
| cognitive theories | divide motivating factors into intrinsic and extrinsic. |
| intrinsic motivation | comes from within. need for self-determination, self-efficacy. |
| extrinsic motivation | comes from the outside world. |
| henry murray | a cognitive theorist. believed that although motivation is rooted in biology, individual and environmental differences cause motivations and needs to be expressed in different ways. human needs can be broken down into 20 specific types. |
| social theory of motivation | people are motivated to reduce tension, so they'll change their attitude to fit their behavioral pattern if they believe they are in control. |
| kurt lewin | came up with 4 types of conflics of motives |
| approach-approach conflict | one has to decide between two desirable options |
| avoidance-avoidance conflict | one must decide between two undesirable options |
| approach-avoidance conflict | only one choice is presented, but it's partly good, partly bad. |
| multiple approach-avoidance | many options are available, but each have positives and negatives. |
| emotion definition | environmental stimuli can cause physiological changes and responses. |
| cannon-bard theory | physiological response to emotion and the experience of emotion occur simultaneously in response to emotion-provoking stimulus. meassage from thalamus to automatic and cerebral cortex at the same time. |
| 2 factor theory | physical arousal, then how we label arousal determine experience of emotion. |
| james-lange theory | environmental stimuli can cause physiological changes and responses. emotion is a result of physiological change. it's incorrect. |
| stress | causes a person to feel challenged or endangered |
| stressors | events that cause stress |
| transient stressors | temporary challenges |
| chronic stressors | challenges that occur over a long period of time, can have health implications |
| general adaptation syndrome | synonym for fight or flight response |
| alarm | first stage of general adaptation syndrome |
| arousal of sympathetic nervous system. hormones released. | what the alarm stage causes. |
| resistance | the second stage of general adaptation syndrome |
| action of parasympathetic rebound. reduces arousal state. | what the resistance stage causes. |
| exhaustion | if the stressor doesn't stop, this stage occurs. tissues can't be repaired. |
| richard lazarus | created a cognitive theory about stress response |
| primary appraisal | in lazarus's theory, the individual judges whether it's a stressor. |
| secondary appraisal | in lazarus's theory, its the assessment of whether the person can handle the stress. |
| type A | competitiveness, time urgency, elevated feelings of anger, hostility. respond quickly, aggressively to stress. get in stressful situations. |
| type B | low level of competitiveness, no time urgency, easy-going attitude. get stressed slowly. |
| life-span psychologists | look at the devlopment throughout the entire life span |
| normative development | typical sequence of developmental changes for a group of people |
| cross-sectional method | to compare groups of people on normative characteristics |
| longitudinal method | for individual developmental process. follows a small group of people over a long period of time. |
| maturationists | emphasize the role of genetically programmed growth on the body, especially nervous system. |
| maturation | biological readiness |
| environmentalists | emphasize learning as the source of complex behaviors, cognition |
| continuous development | the idea that development is gradual |
| discontinuous development | the idea that devleopment occurs in stages |
| critical period | a time during which a skill must develop, or else it won't be developed at all. |
| collectivist culture | emphasizes the needs of society above the needs of the individual |
| stages | patterns of behavior that occur in a fixed sequence |
| conception | when physical development begins |
| zygote | fertilized egg |
| germinal stage | first stage. zygote undergoes cell division, 64 cells, implants in uterine wall |
| embryonic stage | second stage. organ formation, lasts until beginning of third month. |
| fetal stage | third stage. sexual differentiation occurs, movement begins. |
| teratogens | environmental agents that harm the fetus. |
| neonate | newborn baby. |
| sucking reflex | triggered by placing something in baby's mouth |
| palmar reflex | automatic grabbing triggered by placing something in baby's hands |
| babinski reflex | toes splay out when bottom of foot is stroked |
| head-turning or rooting reflex | response elicited when touching baby's cheek |
| moro reflex | the splaying of the limbs when loud noises occur |
| orienting reflex | baby adjusts to changes in the surroundings |
| face-like patterns | what babies love to look at |
| stereotyped ingestive responses | sucking, smacking lips for sweetness. crying, sticking tongue out for sour or bitter tasts. evolutionary background. |
| childhood | gross motor skills and fine motor skills develop |
| puberty | growth spurts in height and weight. development of secondary sex characteristics. menstruation in girls, nocturnal emission in boys. |
| cognitive development | development of learning, memory, reasoning, problem-solving skills |
| equilibration | the attempt to balance environmental characteristics with the cognitive structures the child brings to the situation |
| assimilation | incorporating new ideas into existing schemas |
| schema | mental representational model |
| accomodation | modifying the schema to include new information |
| piaget | created equilibration theory, identified stages of development. biology > environment. |
| sensorimotor | a child acts on objects and begins to develop schemas, becomes goal-oriented. 1-2 years. |
| object permanence | develops during sensorimotor stage. the knowledge that objects exist when they are outside of view. |
| preoperational stage | development of language and symbolic thinking. egocentrism, artificialism, animism. 2-7 years. |
| artificialism | the belief that all things are human made |
| animism | the belief that everything is alive |
| concrete operational stage | able to access schemas, perform mental operations, reversibility, conservation. 7-11 years. |
| reversibility | the ability to perform a mental operation, then switch thinking back to a starting point. |
| formal operational stage | able to understand abstractions, metacognition, hypothetical reasoning. |
| hypothetical reasoning | the ability to solve problems without direct experience in dealing with the problem. |
| metacognition | the ability to recognize and adapt one's own cognitive processes. |
| theory of mind | children recognize that other people see the world differently than they do. |
| lev vygotsky | environment > biology. internalization, development levels. |
| internalization | the abosportion of knowledge into the self from environmental and social contexts. |
| actual development level | the level of ability a child displays |
| potential development level | the ability the child is capable of |
| ability depends on environmental factors | why actual development level rarely equals potential development level |
| fluid intelligence | the ability to think in terms of abstract concepts and symbolic relationships |
| crystallized intelligence | the specific knowledge of facts and information |
| wisdom | perspective or knowledge accumulated over time. insight into life situations and conditions that results in good judgments. |
| social development | the development of the ability to interact with others and with the social structures in which we live |
| erik erikson | came up with stages of psychosocial development. his was the first theory to assert that development is a life-span process. |
| trust v mistrust | during 1st year. infants decide whether the world is friendly or hostile. outcome: faith and hopefulness. |
| autonomy v shame and doubt | ages 1-3. child develops sense of control over bodily function and environments. outcome: toilet training, walking etc. |
| initiative v guilt | ages 3-6. children learn to assert themselves socially without overstepping bounds. outcome: sense of purpose. |
| industry v inferiority | ages 6-12. kids gain a sense of pride in their work, learn what they're capable of. outcome: sense of competence. |
| identity v role confusion | adolescents. search for identity. outcome: sense of fidelity (truthfulness to one's self) |
| intimacy v isolation | early adulthood. attempt to form lasting relationships. outcome: learning how to love in a mature way. |
| generativity v stagnation | middle adulthood. struggle to be productive in both career and home. outcome: feeling of generativity, contribution to next generation. |
| integrity v despair | old age. struggle to come to terms with one's life. outcome: wisdom, accepting death. |
| harry harlow | showed that rhesus monkey infants need comfort and security as much as food. |
| attachment | the tendency to prefer specific familiar individuals over others. |
| john bowlby | considered the father of attachment theory. pioneered view that early experiences affect later behavior. |
| mary ainsworth | studied infant attachment using strange situation, found 3 attachment patterns. |
| strange situation | a parent leaves a child with a stranger, then returns. |
| secure | the child uses the parent for support. most common type of attachment. |
| insecure | the child doesn't know whether parent will be supportive. 7-15% of population. |
| avoidant | child doesn't use the parent for support. rare situation. |
| disorganized | child behaves erratically. attachment style associated with abuse. |
| authoritarian | parents expect perfect behavior without explanation. kids become socially withdrawn, can't make decisions, not curious. |
| authoritative | parents expect compliance to rules but explain the rules, are open to negotiation. set limits, give punishments, forgive. kids are confidant, articulate. |
| permissive | parents don't set boundaries. are more like friends. |
| elisabeth kubler-ross | theorist about dealing with death and dying. denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance. |
| lawrence kohlberg | developed the most influential theory of moral development, expanded on piaget's theory. |
| preconventional morality (stage 1) | kohlberg's level 1. age 7-10. avoiding punishment and receiving rewards. |
| preconventional morality (stage 2) | kohlberg's level 1. age 7-10. children make judgments by evaluating the benefit for themselves. |
| conventional morality (stage 3) | kohlberg's level 2. child tries to live up to expectations set by authority figures. |
| conventional morality (stage 4) | kohlberg's level 2. young teenagers develop consciences. |
| conventional morality definition | the internalization of society's rules and morals. |
| postconventional morality (stage 5) | kohlberg's level 3. 16+ internal set of values. balance must be struck by individual rights and social contracts. |
| postconventional morality (stage 6) | kohlberg's level 3. highest stage of moral development. universal principles of justice outweigh societal rules and person acts accordingly. |
| carol gilligan | revised kohlberg's theory. theory places the development of caring relationships as central to moral progress. |
| psychosexual development | the development of awareness of one's own sexuality, identifying with a gender. |
| gender identity | the awareness that one is a boy or a girl. usually reached by 2 or 3. |
| gender typing | the acquisition of sex-related roles. occurs in ages 2-7. |
| gender constancy | gender is an unchangable characteristic, not defined by clothes etc. ages 2-7. |
| androgyny | the blurring of the lines between stereotypical male and female roles in society. |
| freud's oral stage | infants-2 yr olds. pleasure comes from sucking. |
| freud's anal stage | 2-4. child derives pleasure from defecation. |
| freud's phallic stage | 4-middle childhood. child discovers that genital stimulation is pleasurable. |
| freud's latency period | childhood-adolescence. sexual issues are suppressed. |
| freud's genital stage | early adulthood. the establishment of standard heterosexual relationships. |
| oedipal conflict | boy's desire for the mother and fear of the father. |
| electra conflict | girl's desire for father and fear of the mother. |
| fixation | the inadequate resolution of one of freud's stages. |
| bandura's opinions about development | sexual roles are often acquired by environmental factors. |
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