AP Psych Review
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165 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Behavioral perspective | Pavlov, Watson, Skinner. Observable behavior that can be objectively measured |
| Humanistic perspective | Rogers, Maslow. Importance of self-esteem, free will, and choice |
| Psychoanalytic perspective | Freud. Role of unconscious conflicts in determining behavior and personality |
| Cognitive perspective | Encoding, processing, and storing information. Thinking, perceiving, and information processing. |
| Biological perspective | genetics, roles of parts of the brain, and the structure and function of nerve cells |
| Evolutionary perspective | Charles Darwin. Natural selection and adaptation in evolution of behavior and mental processes |
| Experimental method | controlled scientific procedure involving manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect |
| independent variable | factor that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter |
| dependent variable | factor that is measured by experimenter. depends on independent variable |
| experimental group | group exposed to independent variable |
| control group | group exposed to all experimental conditions, except independent variable. used to compare to experimental group |
| confounding variable | variables that have an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment |
| double-blind study | neither researcher nor participant knows which group is the control group, and which is experimental |
| case study | in-depth examination of a single person |
| correlation research | researcher observes two or more naturally occurring variables to find the relationship between them. no manipulation of variables |
| correlation coefficient | numerical value from +1.00 to -1.00 that indicates strength and direction of relationship between two variables |
| mean | average score |
| median | divides frequency distribution exactly in half |
| mode | most frequent score |
| standard deviation | measure of variability indicating average differences between scores and mean |
| normal distribution | bell-shaped curve. half of scores fall at or above mean, half fall at or below |
| positively skewed distribution | most scores at low end of scale. mean is higher than median |
| negatively skewed distribution | most scores at high end of scale. mean is lower than median |
| p-value | probability of concluding that a difference exists when a difference does not exist. The smaller it is, the more significant the results |
| neuron | nerve cell responsible for receiving and transmitting info in electrical and chemical forms. fundamental building blocks of nervous system |
| myelin sheath | fatty covering around axons to increase rate at which nerve impulses travel |
| action potential | electrical impulse which info is transmitted along axon |
| all-or-nothing law | either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and action potential occurs, or a neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and it does not occur |
| endorphins | chemical substances in the nervous system that reduce perception of pain |
| neurotransmitters | chemical transmitters manufactured by a neuron |
| sympathetic nervous system | branch of automatic nervous system. produces rapid physical arousal in response to perceived emergencies or threats |
| parasympathetic nervous system | branch of autonomic nervous system. calms body, maintains bodily functions, and conserves energy |
| hypothalamus | brain structure beneath thalamus. controls release of hormones by pituitary gland. regulates hunger and thirst |
| cerebral cortex | surface layer of brain. regulates complex behavior, sensations, motor control, and decision making |
| cerebral hemispheres | halves of cerebral cortex. left- verbal and analytical. right- nonverbal, art, music, visual recognition |
| corpus callosum | bundle of nerve fibers connecting brain hemispheres |
| amygdala | part of limbic system. regulates emotional responses, especially fear |
| hippocampus | forebrain part of limbic system. learning and forming new memories |
| absolute threshold | minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be detected at least 50% of the time |
| sensory adaptation | decline in sensitivity to a constant stimulus |
| transduction | process by which sensory receptors convert incoming physical energy of stimuli into neural impulses that brain can understand |
| signal detection theory | sensation depends on characteristics of stimulus, the background stimulation, and the detector |
| gate-control theory | theory explaining how nervous system blocks of allows pain signals to pass to the brain |
| rods | visual receptor cells in retina. sensitive to light but not color. responsible for peripheral vision and black-and-white vision |
| cones | visual receptor cells responsible for color vision and fine detail |
| blind-spot | point where optic nerve leaves the eye. no visual receptor cells |
| cochlea | coiled structure in inner ear containing receptors for hearing |
| circadian rhythm | biological processes that systematically vary over a period of 24 hours |
| REM sleep | type of sleep in which dreams usually occur. active eye movements and loss of muscle movement |
| hypnosis | trancelike state of suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus |
| dissociation | splitting consciousness into two or more simultaneous streams of mental activity |
| classical conditioning | Pavlov. learning process that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a UCS to elicit a CR |
| unconditioned stimulus | a natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without need for prior learning |
| unconditioned response | unlearned response that is elicited by and unconditioned stimulus |
| neutral stimulus | a stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning |
| conditioned stimulus | a previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response |
| conditioned response | a learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus |
| extinction | gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when it is presented repeatedly |
| simulus generalization | when stimuli that are similar to original stimulus to the original stimulus also elicit the conditioned response |
| stimulus discrimination | the ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli |
| operant conditioning | a learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences that follow a response |
| reinforcement | strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur |
| positive reinforcement | situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus |
| negative reinforcement | situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus |
| premack principle | states that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can by used to reinforce a less-prefered activity |
| continuous reinforcement | reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced |
| shaping | the technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayed |
| intermittent reinforcement | the rewarding of some, but not all, correct responses |
| fixed ratio schedule | reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses |
| variable ratio schedule | reinforcement is unpredictable because the ratio varies |
| fixed interval schedule | reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed |
| variable interval schedule | reinforcement occurs unpredictably since the time interval varies |
| punishment | a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated |
| positive punishment | adding an aversive stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur |
| negative punishment | taking away a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur |
| observational learning | occurs by watching others and them imitating or modeling the observed behavior |
| recall | the use of a general cue to retrieve a memory |
| recognition | the use of a specific cue to retrieve a memory |
| serial-position effect | info at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle |
| episodic memory | a subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories of personal experiences and events |
| proactive interference | occurs when old information interferes with recalling new info |
| retroactive interference | occurs when new information interferes with recalling old info |
| retrograde amnesia | people who suffer from this are unable to remember some or all of their past |
| anterograde amnesia | people who suffer from this are unable to form new memories |
| method of loci | process of remembering several pieces of info by mentally associating an image of each with a different location |
| phonemes | the smallest distinctive sound used in a language |
| morphemes | the smallest units of meaning in a language |
| algorithm | a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem |
| functional fixedness | the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving |
| confiramtion bias | The tendency to look for or pay attention only to information that confirms ones own belief |
| heuristic | a commonsense rule (or set of rules) intended to increase the probability of solving some problem |
| availability heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common |
| representative heuristic | Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes |
| divergent thinking | a type of creative thinking in which one generates new solutions to problems |
| yerkes-dodson law | the psychological principle stating that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal |
| hierarchy of needs | Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active |
| achievement motivation | a desire for significant accomplishment; for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for rapidly attaining a high standard. |
| extrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment |
| intrinsic motivation | Engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations |
| display rules | rules learned through socialization that dictate which emotions are suitable to given situations |
| james-lange theory | the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli |
| schachter-singer two-factor theory | the theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal |
| stress | the reaction of a person's body to potentially threatening, challenging, or disturbing events |
| conflict | occurs when a person is forced to choose between two or more opposing goals |
| general adaptation syndrome | Selye's model of the body's stress response, consisting of three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. |
| longitudinal method | a type of research in which the same people are studied over a long time period |
| cross-sectional method | a method of research that looks at different age groups at the same time in order to understand changes that occur during the life span |
| schema | a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information |
| assimilation | interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas |
| accommodation | adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information |
| object permanence | a child's realization that an object exists even when he or she cannot see or touch it |
| irreversibility | the inability, in the preoperational child, to think through a series of events or mental operations and then reverse the steps ex:the biggest obstacle to logical thinking in the properational child |
| conservation | the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects |
| permissive style of parenting | parents set few rules, make minimal demands, and allow their children to reach their own conclusions |
| authoritative style of parenting | parents set firm rules, make reasonable demands, and listen to their child's viewpoint while still insisting on responsible behavior |
| authoritarian style of parenting | parents set rigid rules, enforce strict punishments, and rarely listen to their child's point of view |
| psychosocial stages | Erikson's theory that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a crisis that must be successfully resolved |
| the id | Freud's term for the part of personality that is irrational, concerned only with seeking pleasure |
| the superego | According to Frued, it is partly conscious. It consists of internalized parental and societal standards. It operates on a morality principle, seeking to enforce ethical conduct. |
| the ego | According to Freud, it resides in the concious and preconcious level of awareness. it is rational and Practical. It operates on a reality, seeking to mediate between the demands of the id and the superego. |
| defense mechanisms | in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality |
| repression | the classical defense mechanism that protects you from impulses or ideas that would cause anxiety by preventing them from becoming conscious |
| self-efficacy | a person's belief in his or her ability to succeed at the task at hand |
| locus of control | A belief about the amount of control a person has over situations in their life. |
| five-factor model | There are five basic factors needed to capture the basic structure of personality: openness, consciousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. |
| g factor | A general ability, proposed by Spearman as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity |
| fluid intelligence | one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood |
| crystallized intelligence | one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age |
| standardization | defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested standardization group |
| reliability | consistency of measurement |
| validity | the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure |
| self-fulfilling prophecy | observations or behaviors that result primarily from expectations |
| DSM-IV-TR | the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, with an updated "text revision"; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. |
| phobias | irrational fears of specific objects or situations. |
| OCD | an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts and/or actions |
| post-traumatic stress disorder | an anxiety disorder associated with serious traumatic events and characterized by such symptoms as survivor guilt, reliving the trauma in dreams, numbness and lack of involvement with reality, or recurrent thoughts and images |
| bipolar disorder | a mental disorder characterized by episodes of mania and depression |
| somatoform disorders | disorders characterized by physical symptoms for which no known physical cause exists |
| schizophrenia | a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions |
| narcissistic personality disorder | characterized by a grandiose sense of self-importance, a preoccupation with fantasies of success or power, and a need for constant attention or admiration |
| dissociative disorders | disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings |
| psychoanalysis | Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions |
| cognitive therapy | therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions |
| rational emotive therapy | developed by Albert Ellis, a form of psychotherapy based on identifying and correcting irrational beliefs that are believed to underlie emotional and behavioral difficulties |
| humanistic therapy | focuses on removing obstacles that block personal growth and potential |
| client-centered therapy | A humanistic therapy based on Carl Roger's beliefs that an individual has an unlimited capacity for psychological growth and will continue to grow unless barriers are placed in the way. |
| behavior therapy | treatments that use classical conditioning principles to change behavior |
| systematic desensitization | A type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias. |
| aversion therapy | A behavior therapy in which an aversive stimulus is paired with a stimulus that elicits an undesirable response. |
| biomedical therapy | prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on the patient's nervous system |
| fundamental attribution error | the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. |
| self-serving bias | he tendency to assign oneself credit for successes but to blame failures on external forces |
| central route to persuasion | occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts |
| peripheral route to persuasion | The process by which a person does not think carefully about a communication and is influenced instead by superficial cues |
| foot-in-the-door phenomenon | the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request |
| cognitive dissonance | the distressing mental state caused by inconsistency between a person's two beliefs or a belief and an action |
| social facilitation | improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered |
| social inhibition | The tendency to perform complex or difficult tasks more poorly in the presence of others. |
| social loafing | the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable. |
| deindividuation | when an individual seems to lose himself or herself in the group's identity |
| bystander effect | the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present |
| group polarization | the enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group |
| groupthink | the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. |
| conformity | adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard |
| obedience | changing behavior in response to a demand from an authority figure |
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