AP Biology: Vertebrates Part II
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distancerunner on May 19, 2012
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67 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Excretion | Removal of metabolic wastes |
| Osmoregulation | Keeping a stable concentration of dissolved substances in body fluids |
| Nitrogenous Wastes | Result from the breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids |
| Ammonia | Highly toxic; produced by most aquatic animals |
| Urea | Produced by mammals and amphibians; combination of ammonia and carbon dioxide; transformation takes place in the liver |
| Uric Acid | Least toxic waste; produced by land snails, insects, birds, and reptiles; semisolid; conserves water |
| Osmoregulation in Marine Environments | Organisms must stop loss of water; organisms must not take in too much salt; sharks store extra urea in their tissues; bony fish pump salt from their gills; some animals are osmoconformers |
| Osmoregulation in Freshwater Environments | Organisms must stop the loss of salt; organisms need to prevent the uptake of too much water; some secrete large amounts of dilute urine; also try to eat salty foods; can pump salts into fish's gills |
| Osmoregulation in Terrestrial Environments | Water conservation is key; salts are also an important part of terrestrial organism's diet; external tissue need to be water tight to prevent evaporation |
| Filtration | Blood pressure forces fluid out of the blood through the walls of the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule |
| Nephron | Functional unit of a kidney |
| Secretion | Along the tubule of the nephron; some substances are secreted into the tubules from the surrounding intestinal fluid |
| Reabsorption | Some small particles are returned from the tubules to the blood |
| Proximal Convoluted Tubule | Secretes hydrogen ions, drugs, poisons; reabsorbs glucose, amino acids, potassium ions, water, and other salts |
| Descending Loop of Henle | Permeable only to water; interstitial fluid becomes increasingly more concentrated; water exits tubule by osmosis; fluid in tubule becomes very concentrated |
| Ascending Loop of Henle | Permeable to NaCl, not water; NaCl is reabsorbed here |
| Distal Convoluted Tubule | Hydrogen ions and potassium ions are secreted here; sodium ions and bicarbonate are reabsorbed |
| Collecting Duct | More water is reabsorbed; urea can be secreted; tubular fluid is now known as urine |
| Antidiruetic Hormone | Blood concentration monitored by the hypothalamus; released by the anterior pituitary when blood concentration is too high; increases permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and the collecting duct to water |
| Juxtaglomerular Apparatus | Senses decreased blood pressure; secretes renin into the blood |
| Renin | Reacts with a blood chemical to make angiotensin |
| Angiotensin | Increases sodium reabsorption, causing water retention; increases blood volume and blood pressure |
| Atrial Natriuretic Protein | High blood pressure sensed by a cluster of cells in the right atrium; secreted into the blood; counteracts production of renin |
| External Barrier | Nonspecific defense; skin has a pH of 3-5; tears and saliva wash invaders away; enzymes in skin break down materials |
| Inflammation | Non specific response; small blood vessels in an area dilate causing heat and redness; blood vessels in the area become more permeable, causing swelling; phagocytes are attracted to the area to clean up any invaders that may have entered the body |
| Specific Defenses | Third line of defense against invaders; characterized by specificity, diversity; self/nonself recognition, and memory |
| Active Immunity | Specific immunity created by the body due to exposure to a foreign particle |
| Passive Immunity | One organism acquires specific immunity from another organism |
| Humoral Immunity | Production of antibody proteins by B lymphocytes to bind to antigens |
| Cell-Mediated Immunity | T lymphocytes that specifically bind to cells that are presenting foreign antigens to bring about their destruction or activate the immune system |
| B-Lymphocytes | Created and mature in the bone marrow; express specific antigen receptors on surface; those that have receptors for self-antigens are destroyed before leaving the bone marrow |
| Primary Immune Response | Takes place when an antigen receptor binds to a specific antigen; activates the B-lymphocytes to reproduce over and over; some turn into plasma cells to create antibodies; others create memory cells to stick around for another exposure; takes 10-17 days to build |
| Secondary Immune Response | Takes less time and creates more antibodies than the primary immune response |
| IgM | Pentamer secreted into the blood after exposure to antigens |
| igG | Monomer secreted into the blood; most common antibody; can cross placenta to give fetus passive immunity |
| IgA | Dimer found on mucous membranes and in external secretions; helps give baby passive immunity through breast milk |
| IgD | Monomer found on surface of B-cells; antigen receptor |
| IgE | Monomer that connects with mast cells and basophils when activated to cause histamine secretion |
| Antibody Actions | Neutralization; agglutination; precipitation, compliment fixation |
| T-Lymphocytes | Created in bone marrow and mature in the thymus gland; also have specific antigen receptors; those with receptors for self-antigens are destroyed in the thymus |
| T-Helper Cells | Latch onto special phagocytic antigen presenting cells (APC) and release interleukins to stimulate other lymphocytes to become active |
| Antigen Presenting Cells | Have proteins called class II MHCs to present foreign antigens to T-helper cells, which have receptors called CD4s to attach to them |
| Cytotoxic T-Cells | Latch onto normal body cells that are presenting foreign antigens and destroys them; release perforin to create pores in the cell it attaches to |
| Reception | Normal body cells have class I MHCs that bind to the cytotoxic t cell's CD8 |
| Suppressor T-Cells | Deactivate the immune system once an infection is destroyed |
| Nervous System | Functions in sensory input, integration, and motor output |
| Sensory Input | Taking in information from surroundings with sensory organs |
| Integration | CNS pieces together sensory input and formulates a response |
| Motor Output | Muscles and glands react to messages from the CNS |
| Neurons | Functional nerve cells that propagate electrical impulses |
| Dendrites | Receive information from the surroundings |
| Cell Body | Signals the axon; can be bundled together into structures called nuclei or ganglia |
| Axons | Connect to the cell; can be bundled into cable like structures called nerves |
| Astrocytes | Make a barrier between the brain and circulatory system; makes it harder for foreign invaders to get in |
| Oligodendrocytes | Schwann cells; form myelin sheath for insulation |
| Resting Potential | Charge that neurons build up across their cell membranes; inside more negative than outside; created by sodium-potassium pumps |
| Impulse | Takes place when the cell body of a neuron receives an appropriate stimulus; sends it down the axon; threshold potential needed to start it |
| Threshold Potential | 15-20 mV above resting potential; needed to start an impulse; if achieved, sodium channels will open in the first section of an axon next to a cell body, allowing sodium to flow into that section |
| Depolarization | Occurs when sodium channels open; causes the next section of the axon to do the same |
| Hyperpolarization | Starts when the sodium channels close in a section; potassium channels open, allowing potassium ions to flow out of a section; axon reaches -75 mV charge |
| Refractory Period | Period after hyperpolarization in which an action potential cannot be propagated until the resting potential is restored |
| Strong Stimuli | Increase rate of impulses |
| Action Potential Detail | Movement of action potential is away from the cell body; speed of impulse is determined by amount of insulation around the neuron and the diameter of the axon |
| Synaptic Junction | Place where an impulse jumps from one cell to another |
| Electrical Synapses | Presynaptic and postsynaptic cells are connected by gap junctions; sodium ions can travel directly from one cell to the next, causing depolarization |
| Chemical Synapses | Use neurotransmitters to transmit impulses; presynaptic cell releases neurotransmitters when excited by an action potential; NT diffuses across the synaptic cleft; NT binds to the ion channels on the postsynaptic cell; either excitatory or inhibitory; NT degraded and synaptic transmission ceases |
| Neurotransmitters | Acetylcholine (excitatory in neuromuscular junctions, can be inhibitory); Amines (epinehprine, norepinephrine, dopamine); Neuropeptides (Endorphins) |
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