Good Counsel H. Biology Final
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Created by:
Melissa_Kallarakal on May 30, 2012
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151 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 3 parts of a nucleotide | N-containing base, 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group |
| purines | Adenine and guanine- double ringed |
| pyrimidines | Thymine and cytosine- single ringed |
| intron | part of the mRNA that is "edited" out- it is not needed |
| exons | part of the mRNA that is needed for protein synthesis |
| DNA | shape- double helix, function- contains "instructions" for protein sythesis, sugar- deoxyribose |
| RNA | shape- single strand, function- directly used in protein synthesis, sugar- ribose |
| gene | sections of DNA that contaion instructions for protein synthesis |
| genome | the full set of DNA in an organism |
| plasmids | how genetic information is stored in prokaryotics; circular pieces of DNA |
| chromosomes | how genetic information is stored in eukaryotics; many small pieces of DNA; humans have 23 pairs (46 total) |
| trait | any single feature or physical characteristic in an organism |
| genotype | the genes that an organism carries for a particular trait |
| phenotype | the physical manifestation of the instructions |
| transcription | a copy of the gene base sequence is made |
| translation | a copy of a gene is used to direct the production of a protein |
| mRNA | in eukaryotes, the gene base sequence or "code" is copied oto a "middleman" molecule called |
| nucleus | where is the DNA located |
| ribonucleotides | mRNA transcript is made of four different molecules called... contain sugar- ribose, N-containing base, phosphate group |
| T | A pairs with |
| C | G pairs with |
| Uracil | takes the place of T in RNA |
| termination sequence (stop codon) | when RNA polymerase encounters a sequence of bases called... it stops creating the trainscript and detaches from the DNA |
| codon | a three base sequene on mRNA; always matches up with a tRNA molecule that carries a specific amino acid |
| methionine | the first amino acid in ANY protein that is being built |
| mutation | an alteration of the sequence of bases in DNA |
| point mutations | one DNA nucleotide is replaced with another or a base pair in inserted or deleted |
| chromosomal mutations | changes to the overall organization of the genes in a chromosome; large chunks of information is affected; can involve the deletion of an entire section of DNA |
| spontaneous mutations | arise by accident as DNA is duplicating |
| radiation induced mutations | radiation disrupts atomic structure even breaking apart chromosomes |
| chemical induced mutations | chemicals alter code; ex. cigarette smoke, exhaust from vehicles |
| biotechnology | organisms, cells, and molecules are modified to achieve practical benefits |
| genetic engineering | manipulation of an organisms' genetic material- genes are added, deleted, or transplanted |
| PCR | a laboratory technique that repeatedly duplicates tiny pieces of DNA to unlimited quantities of that piece |
| transgenic | an organism that contains DNA from a donor species |
| clone | a genetically identical cell that contains the DNA of interest |
| gene therapy | treatment intended to cure a disease by inserting a function gene into a cell to replace a defective gene |
| VNTR | regions of repeating base pair sequences; number of times repeating sequence occurs for a given region differs from individual to individual |
| telomeres | a protective cap at the end of DNA |
| cell cycle | behavior of cells as they grow and divide into two identical daughter cells |
| interphase | cell growth; three phases- G1, S phase, and G2 |
| helicase | enzyme that unwinds DNA and separates into two strands |
| DNA polymerase | enzyme that connects complemetary bases with exposed bases on the parent strands creating two DNA molecules, each with one older parent strand and one new daughter strand |
| G1 phase | normal cell growth |
| S-phase | DNA replication |
| G2 phase | cell growth; organelles increase in number |
| mitosis | nuclear division |
| prophase | chromosomes tightly coil and condense; nuclear envelope disintigrates; nucleoli disappear; spindle fibers form centrioles more to opposite poles; centromere of each sister chromatid connects to spindle fibers |
| metaphase | centromeres of sister chromatids are pulled to the middle of the cell and align at the equator |
| anaphase | centromeres divide and sister chromatids form chromosomes; spindle fibers shorten and pull chromosomes to opposite poles; each pole has a complete set of identical chromosomes |
| telophase | nuclear envelope forms around each set of chromosomes; chromosomes uncoil; nucleoli reappear; spindle fibers disappear; cell enters cytokinesis |
| cytokinesis | animal cells- the cell membrane pinches inward, forming a cleavage furrow; plant cells- a firm cell wall forms in between the two nuclei called a cell plate |
| meiosis | the process that creates haploid reproductive cells (egg and sperm- gametes); necessary for fertilization very much like mitosis, but the system is doubled |
| haploid | have one copy of each chromosome (1/2 the normal number) (n) |
| diploid | have two copies of each chromosome (the normal number- one from the father, one from the mother) (2n) |
| fertilization | when two haploid gametes fuse and restor the diploid chromosome number; creates a 2n fertilized egg (zygote) |
| homologous chromosomes | a pair of chromosomes in diploid cells; one pair is maternal, the other paternal |
| karyotypes | visual display of the complete set of chromosomes |
| allele | alternate versions of a gene; comes in two forms |
| heredity | passing on of genes and their traits from parents to offspring |
| homozygous | have two of the same alleles for one trait |
| heterozygous | have two different alleles for a trait |
| law of segregation | only one of the two alleles you posses for each trait is put into each gemete |
| dominant | this trait, if present, masks the expression of a recessive trait |
| recessive | this trait is masked by a dominant allele |
| Punnett Square | predicts possible genotypes of all offspring when two individuals mate |
| test cross | used to determine the genotype of an individual with an unknown phenotype |
| carrier | another name for a heterozygous genotype- this person can pass on a recessive trait to its offspring but doesn't express it |
| incomplete dominance | phenotype of the heterozygote is an intermediate form (ex. four o'clock flowers |
| polygenic trait | several genes contribute to the overall phenotype (ex. human skin color) |
| epistasis | when one gene masks the effects of another |
| Mendel's law of independent assortment | states that the inheritance of one trait does not influence the inheritance of another trait- not true |
| linked genes | when alles for two or more traits are located on the same chromosome, they are inherited together and violate the law of independent assortment |
| multiple alleles | more than two alleles exist for a trait (although everyone can only have two of those alleles) (ex. human blood type) |
| antigen | proteins that determine bloodtype, and are found on the surface of red blood cells |
| antibodies | produced by certain blood types that will attack foreign antigens |
| codominance | when two alleles are equally dominant and both are expressed(ex. sickle cell anemia) |
| pleiotrophy | one gene has multiple effects (ex. cystic fibrosis) |
| sex linked trait | traits that are passed on through the X and Y chromosomes |
| populations | orgainisms of the same species living in a given geographic region |
| evolution | changes over time to a population (note- individuals do not evolve, populations evolve) |
| variations | differences in organisms of the same species |
| enviornmental pressure | when the enviornment puts pressure on an organism, the are forced to adapt |
| adapt | to better adjust to the enviornmental pressure |
| reproductive success | the most fit will survive and pass those traits onto their offspring |
| allele frequency | the proportion of a particular allele in a population |
| mutagens | mutation inducing chemicals |
| genetic drift | changes in allele frequency due to chance |
| bottleneck effect | disasters reduce the size of the gene pool and allele frequencies of survivors increase |
| founder effect | when a few individuals colonize an island, lake, or new habitat, the smaller founder colony will have less genetic diversity than the large source population |
| migration or gene flow | exchange of genes with another population |
| natural selection | individuals with favorable variations survive, reproduce, and pass on their alleles; the allele frequency wil change in favor of these individuals (selected for) |
| fossil | the remains of dead animals preserved over hundreds of years in rock |
| biogeography | the study of the distribution patterns of living organisms around the world |
| multicellular | having multiple cells |
| unicellular | having only one cell |
| heterotroph | have to obtain their food from outside source (can't photosynthesize) |
| autotroph | organisms that make their own food via photosynthesis |
| biodeversity | variety among genes, species, and enviornments |
| phases in which life on earth evolved | formation of small organic compounds; formation of self-replicating molecules; development of a membrane to separate RNA from their surroundings so it could perform metabolism |
| Biological Species Concept | states that a species is a population of organisms that interbreed (or can interbreed) in natural conditions (not when in captivity) and produce fertile offspring |
| prezygotic barriers | make it impossible for individuals to mate (different courtship rituals, physical differences) or sperm can't fertilize eggs (biochemical factors prevent fertilization) |
| postzygotic barriers | prevent fertile offspring from forming between members of two different species; the hybrid offspring are either infertile (ex. Mules) or do not survive long after fertilization |
| taxonomy | identifying, naming, and classifying species |
| speciation | one species splits into two distinct species |
| reproductive isolation | can occur with or without geographical separation |
| allopatric speciation | a geographic barrier causes one group of individuals in a population to become reproductively isolated from the other group and over time the populations on either side of the barrier can no longer interbreed |
| sympatric speciation | occurs among populations that are in the same geographic region; two ways- polyploidy and alloploidy; common in plants |
| polyploidy | a cell with twice as many sets of chromosomes as the parent cell- these organisms become reproductively isolated b/c they cannot fertilize gametesfrom the original population |
| alloploidy | different but closely related species interbreed, forming a hybrid which can no longer interbreed with original species (reproductively isolated) but may be able to reproduce asexually; the hybrid is considered the new species |
| genetic divergence | evolve physical and behavioral differences over time as they adapt to their different enviornments |
| systematics | all species (extinct and living) are named and arranged in a manner that indicates common ancestors and the points at which they diverge from one another using phylogenic trees |
| phylogeny | the evolutionary history of organisms |
| nodes | common ancestor points at which species diverge on a phylogenetic tree |
| three characteristcs of animals | eat other organisms, move- at least at some stage during their lives, multicellular |
| sessile | organisms that are fastened in place |
| tissue | a group of cells that perform the same function |
| radial symmetry | animals develop with the structure of a pie- they are symmetrical from many angles |
| bilaterally symmetrical | animals are mirror images form their left to right sides |
| protostomes | the gut develops the mouth first, and then works its way back to the anus |
| deuterastomes | the gut develops the anus first, and then works its way forward to the mouth |
| invertebrate | do not have a spine |
| vertebrates | have a spine |
| molting | shedding an exoskeleton and replacing it with a larger one at regular intervals during their life- only bilaterally symmetrical animals do this |
| 4 distinct structures of chordates | notochord, dorsal hollow nerve chord, pharyngeal slits, post-anal tail |
| notochord | a rod of tissue extending from the head to the tail |
| acoelomate | no body cavity (ex. flatworm) |
| pseudocoelomate | partial body cavity; allows for some organ development (ex. roundworm) |
| coelomate | full body cavity; allows for more organ development (ex. earthworm) |
| gametophyte | haploid multicellular organism |
| sporophyte | diploid multicellular organism |
| extracellular digestion by absorption | secrete digestive enzymes externally, digest food and then absorb digested food |
| decomposers | recycle nutrients |
| lichens | mutualistic relationship between photosynthetic algae and fungus |
| mycorrhizae | "root fungi"; symbiotic relationship between the roots of plants and a fungus |
| hyphae | thread of cytoplasm covered by plasma membrane and cell wall- makes up the body of fungi |
| mycelium | hyphae grow and intertwine into... |
| symbiosis | interaction between 2 different organisms living in close physical association, typically to the advantage of both |
| mutualism | symbiosis that is beneficial to both organisms involved |
| pseudopods | temporary extensions of cytoplasm |
| euglenoids | unicellular, photosynthetic algae with one or two flagella and no cell wall (ex. euglena) |
| dinoflagellates | unicellular, photosynthetic, cell wall made of cellulose; two perpendicular flagella |
| diatoms | glass-like, cell walls contain silica giving them a variety of geometric shapes |
| seaweeds | large, multicellular marine algae |
| green algae | unicellular, multicellular, or colonial (ex. seaweeds, phytoplankton) |
| brown algae | ex. kelp |
| red algae | live deep in water, absorb blue and green light that penetrates deep water |
| protists | eukaryotic, most are unicellular, some colonial, some multicellular, freeliving (not parasites), heterotrophs or autotrophs; classified as animal-like, plant-like, or fungi-like |
| animal-like protists | called protozoans; heterotrophs; four types- zooflagellates, protozoans with pseudopodia, protozoans with cilia (ciliates), protozoans lacking mobility |
| plant-like protists | called algae; autotrophs; four types- Euglenoids, dinoflagellates, diatoms, seaweeds |
| fungi-like protists | heterotrophs; feed on decaying organic matter |
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