biology exam two
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134 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 autotroph | makes their own food from energy captured from the sun a.k.a. producer |
| heterotroph | organism that obtains energy from the food it consumes |
| ADP | (adenosine diphosphate) |
| ATP | (adenosine triphosphate ) one of the principal chemical compounds that cells use to store/release energy |
| ATP parts | adenine, 5 carbon sugar ( ribose ), and 3 phosphate groups. energy is released when the bond between the second and third phopshates break. |
| photosynthesis | using light energy to convert water and C02 into oxygen and high energy carbs ( sugars and starches) |
| formula for photosynthesis | 6C02 + 6H20 -> ( light ) -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 |
| calvin cycle | plants use energy that ATP and NADPH contain to build high energ compounds that can be stored for a long time |
| chlorophyll | light energy is captured. blue-violet/red waveslengths of light are absorbed |
| light-dependent reactions | require light |
| celluar respiration | the process by which mitochondria break down sugar (glucose) into carbond dioxide and water releasing energy, takes place in cytoplasm. oxygen is needed; CO2, H2O and energy are released. |
| formula for cellular respiration | 6O2 = C6H12O6 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy |
| glucose | suagr molecule |
| glycosis | one molecule of glucose is borken in half, producing two molecules of pyruvic acid ( 3 carb. compound) |
| lactic acid fermentation | the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates that produces lactic acid as the main end product; two ATP's are produced; biproducts are unicellular organisms |
| alcoholic fermentation | the anaerobic process by which yeasts and other microorganisms break down sugars to form carbon dioxide and ethanol; |
| aerobic | requires oxygen |
| anaerobic | doesn't require oxygen |
| cell division | when cells divide into 2 daughter cells |
| cell cycle | the stages in the life of the cycle |
| G1 Phase | when most of cell growth occurs; cell increases in size ; synthesize new proteins/organelles |
| G2 Phase | shortest phase, organelles & molecules needed for cell division are made. last phase before mitosis |
| S Phase | chromosomes replicated; synthesis of DNA molecules takes place. |
| M phase | mitosis and cytokinesis |
| Prophase | first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus |
| Metaphase | second phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell |
| Anaphase | the third phase of mitosis, during which the chromosome pairs separate and move toward opposite poles |
| Telophase | the final stage of mitosis, during which a nuclear membrane forms around each set of new chromosomes |
| cytokinesis | division of cell cytoplasm; final phase, same time as telophase. |
| cell plate | in plants cells, this forms between the divided nuclei . cell wall developes in this too. |
| centromere | area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached |
| centriole | one of 2 tiny structures located in cytoplasm of animals cells near nuclear envelope |
| cyclin | regulate the timing of the cellcycle in Eukaryotic Cells |
| cancer | a disorder where some of the body's own cells lose the ability to control growth |
| gregor mendel | austrian monk, discovered genetics. |
| true-breeding | producing offspring indentical to themselves |
| cross-pollination | a reproductive process in which pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma of another plant |
| dominance | one having power over another |
| recessiveness | always trumped by dominance |
| allele | different forms of a gene |
| probability | the likelihood that a certain event will happen; can be used to predict the outcome of genetic crosses. |
| homozygous | having two identical alleles for a trait ( ex: AA) |
| heterozygous | having two different alleles for a trait ( ex: Aa) |
| genotypic ratio | the ratio of the genotypes that appear in offspring |
| phenotypic ratio | a ratio that shows the varied outcomes that results from a genetic cross and is based on physical appearance alone |
| polygenic inheritance | having many genes. ( ex: skin color) |
| codominance | both alleles contribute to phenotype |
| incomplete dominance | one allele isn't completely dominant over another |
| mendel's principals of genetics | genes ( parent to offspring ), some dominant some recessive, segregated independently |
| diploid | (genetics) an organism or cell having two sets of chromosomes or twice the haploid number |
| haploid | of a cell or organism having a single set of chromosomes |
| meiosis | process where number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half through the seperation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell. |
| gene linkage | (genetics) traits that tend to be inherited together as a consequence of an association between their genes |
| griffith's experiments | Showed genetic material could be transferred between dead bacteria and living bacteria; using mice. |
| transformation | (genetics) modification of a cell or bacterium by the uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA |
| bacteriophage | a virus that infects bacteria |
| watson and crick | developed double helix model of structure of DNA |
| rosalind franklin | studied the DNA using xray diffraction |
| DNA structure | structure: double helix. |
| DNA pairs | A=T, G=U |
| Main Differences between DNA and RNA | uracil &thymine; double helix = DNA; single strand= RNA |
| chargaff's rule | [A]=[T] and [G]=[C], they pair up across from one another forming two strands also called base pairing. |
| DNA Replication; Steps | 1- strand unwinding by helicase. ( replication fork) 2- strand seperation 3- synthesis of leading and lagging DNA strands by RNA primase 4- sealing of strands by DNA ligase 5- repair by DNA polymerase B |
| nucleotides | building blocks of DNA |
| dehydration synthesis | chemical reaction in which 2 molecules covalently bond to eachother with the removal of a water molecule |
| chromosome | a threadlike body in the cell nucleus that carries the genes in a linear order; carries DNA info; made of chromatin; |
| codon | 3 consecutive nucleotides that specify a single amino acid |
| anticodon | complementary to one mRna codon |
| protein synthesis | formation of proteins by using information contained in DNA and carried by mRNA |
| transcription | RNA polymerase binds to DNA and seperates the DNA strands. RNA uses a strand of DNA to assemble -> RNA |
| translation | cell uses info from a mRNA to produce proteins |
| messenger RNA | carry copies of instructions |
| ribosomal RNA | protein that makes up RNA |
| transfer RNA | transfers each amino acid to the ribosome |
| mutations | changes in genetic material |
| chromosomal mutation | mutations that produce a single gene |
| point mutation | gene mutations that produce changes in whole chromosomes |
| translocation | the movement of a segment of DNA from one chromosome to another, which results in a change in the position of the segment |
| the purpose of Meiosis | to create gametes by increasing the number of chromosomes ; sexual repro.; genetic variation; chromosome update & repair. |
| selective breeding | allowing only those animals with desired characteristics to produce the next generation (ex: dogs) |
| hybridization | crossing dissimilar individuals to bring together the best of both. |
| inbreeding | continued breeding of individuals with similiar characteristics. pros: ensures characteristics that make a breed unique will be preserved. cons: genetic defects ( blindness/joint deformities) |
| ways to increase variation | chemicals and radiation |
| genetic engineering | making changes in DNA code of a living organism |
| recombinant DNA | DNA produced by combing DNA from different sources |
| transgenic organism | contains genes form other organisms ( ex: tobacco plant, mice) |
| clone | an organism that is genetically identical to the organism from which it was produced |
| Dolly | first mammal cloned from an adult cell; sheep |
| karyotype | photograph of chromosomes grouped in order in pairs. |
| sex chromosomes | one of 2 chromosomes that determine an individual's sex |
| pedigree | chart that shows relationships within a family. square- male. circle-female. shaded- carries trait. unshaded- doesn't carry trait. |
| sex linked genes | genes located on the x or y chromosome |
| human genome project | An international collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome. |
| chromosome # for human karyote | total: 46; autosomes: 44; sex chromosomes: 2; |
| gene therapy | an absent/faulty gene is replaced by a normal, working gene. |
| evolution | change over time |
| theory | a well-supported testable explanation of phenomena that have occured in the natural world. |
| natural selection | process by which individuals that are beter suited to their environments survive and reproduce most sucessfully . aka: survival of the fittest |
| artificial selection | selection by humans for breeding of useful traits from the natural variation among organisms. ( ex: broccoli, cauliflower) |
| adaptations | inherited characteristic that increases an organism's chance of survival |
| fitness | the ability of an individual to survive and reproduce in its specific environment. |
| homologous structures | structures that have different mature forms in different organisms but develop from the same embryonic tissues. |
| common descent | principle that all living things were derived from common ancestors |
| vestigial organs | organ that serves no useful function in an organism (ex: tonsils) |
| fossils | preserved remains or evidence of an ancient organism |
| gene pools | combined genetic info of all the members of a particular population |
| gene frequency | the ratio of a particular allele to the total of all other alleles of the same gene in a given population |
| speciation | formation of a new species |
| geographic isolation | two populations seperated by geographic barriers such as rivers, mountains, etc. |
| reproductive isolation | separation of species or populations so that they cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring |
| behavorial isolation | form of reproductive isolation in which two populations have differences in courtship rituals or other types of behavior that prevent them from interbreeding |
| temporal isolation | form of reproductive isolation in which two populations reproduce at different times |
| directional selection | when individuals at one end of the curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end |
| stablizing selection | when individuals near the center of a curve have higher fitness than individuals at the other end. |
| disruptive selection | when individuals at the upper and lower ends of the curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle |
| interbreeding | breeding with another race/species |
| sedimentary rock | A type of rock that forms when particles from other rocks or the remains of plants and animals are pressed and cemented together |
| radioactive dating | the use of half- lives to determine the age of a sample |
| half lives | length of time required for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay |
| adaptive radiation | a single species or small group of species has evolved through natural selection and other processes into diverse forms that live in different ways. |
| convergent evolution | unrelated organisms begin to resemble eachother |
| co-evolution | 2 species evolve in response to changes in eachother over time |
| punctuated equilibrium | pattern of evolution in which long stable periods are interrupted by brief periods of more rapid change |
| taxonomy | process of classifying organisms and assigning each organism a universally accepted name |
| classification systems | The process of establishing, defining, and ranking taxa within some hierarchical series of groups. |
| linnaeus | called founder of modern taxonomy; Invented binomial nomenclature |
| binomial nomenclature | a system for giving each organism a two-word scientific name that consists of the genus name followed by the species name |
| kingdoms | in classification, the broad taxonomic category above phylum or division |
| phylum | the major taxonomic group of animals and plants |
| class | a taxonomic group containing one or more orders |
| order | taxonomic group containing one or more families |
| family | Group of genera that share many characteristics |
| genus | Group of closely related species, and the first part of the scientific name in binomial nomenclature |
| species | group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring |
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