Developmental Psychology Test 2
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82 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Language | Refers to a symbol system (oral and written) that people use to communicate with each other. |
| Components of Language | -Phonemes -Morphemes -Syntax (grammar) -Semantics -Pragmatics |
| Phonemes | Refer to the smallest unit of sound that make up a language. |
| Assumptions of Phonemes | Infants are born into the world with the ability to discriminate among all the world's phonemes; lose this ability during the first year of life, but retain ability to discriminate ability in their own language. |
| Eima's Experiment | Purpose: To test whether infants born into the world have the ability to discriminate among all the world's phonemes, and whether they lost the ability. Subjects: 6-8 month olds, 8-10 month olds, 10-12 month olds, born in the U.S exposed to only English Procedure: Habituation: occurs when infants show a decrease in responding to a repeatedly presented stimulus -infants in three age groups were repeatedly presented with a phoneme from a non-native language (phoneme from Hindi) while their sucking rate was measured -sucking rate declined over time; when declined to 50% of original value, discrimination phase began Discrimination: -presented with new phoneme from Hindi language while sucking rate was measured -done to see if infants could discriminate between old and new Findings: -discrimination ability declined as babies reached 12 months -90% able to discriminate at 6-8 months -10% were able to discriminate, supports that infants do lose ability |
| Morphemes | Refers to the smallest unit of sound that convey meaning in a language -ex. 'I' and 'a' (some morphemes are also phonemes) -'s' (dogs)/ 'ed' (walked) (prefixes and suffixes are also morphemes) |
| Grammar | Refers to the rules of a language. |
| Syntax | Refers to the rules of ordering language units to produce speech. -a type of grammar -generally, adjectives come before nouns -important because the order of words in a sentence can change the meaning -ex. 'Dog bites man' 'Man bites dog' have different meanings |
| Semantics | Refers to the rules of interpreting the meaning of sentences. -statements should make sense -ex. "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously." -Chomsky coined statement to show that a sentence can have perfect syntax but nonsensical semantics (meaning) |
| Pragmatics | Refers to the rules governing how we use language in social context. -different social situations demand different conversational styles -ex. child directed speech: refers to the speech that adults use when talking to a young child -involves use of simple vocabulary, short sentences, and varied intonation |
| Learning Theory (language) | Explains how kids acquire language. |
| Assumptions of Learning Theory (language) | -kids learn a language through reinforcement and punishment -reinforcement is used to increase the likelihood that kids speak correctly -punishment is used to decrease the likelihood that kids speak incorrectly -parents reinforce kids when they speak correctly, and punish when they are incorrect |
| Support for Learning Theory (language) | -most of the support comes from studies of word-object associations -word object-associations occur when kids label an object with a word |
| Problems with Learning Theory (language) | -kids often say grammatically incorrect things that parents neither punish nor reinforce the kids for -ex. "The mans goed to the store." |
| Nativism | -Chomsky -People are biologically programmed to learn language and it's "wired" into the brain -Chomsky believed that people are programmed with a language acquisition device. -Believes there are certain time frames to learn language. |
| Assumptions of Nativism | The ability to learn a language is innate (present at the time a person is born, and doesn't have to be formally taught) |
| LAD (Language Acquisition Device) | -modular in brain that helps kids learn rules of syntax -a collection of processes that facilitate language learning |
| Support for Nativism | -all healthy infants learn a language -certain aspects of language are universal -language is related to the brain -damage to certain areas affect language learning and comprehension |
| Broca's Area | -located in the left frontal cortex -Involved in the production of the sequential patterns in vocal and sign language |
| Broca's Aphasia | Loss of the ability to produce language |
| Wernicke's Area | -Located in the left temporal cortex -Involved in language comprehension |
| Wernicke's Aphasia | Difficulty understanding spoken language. |
| Over-regularization | -occur when kids generalize a rule of syntax to an irregular case -type of grammatical error -ex. "The mans goed." |
| Critical Period | -in language development, a period in development when a language must be learned, in order to speak the language fluently (like a native language speaker) -critical period when language must be learned (to be able to speak fluently) is before puberty |
| Genie Case Study | -a little girl brought up in almost complete isolation for the first 14 years -never able to learn to speak a language fluently, despite being given extensive training after found -provides evidence that in order to learn a language, you have to be exposed to one before puberty |
| Johnson and Newport Study | Purpose -to test the notion of a critical period for learning a second language, and to see if individuals would have an easier time learning a second language before puberty than after Subjects -chinese immigrants (coming to the U.S) who knew chinese as native language and were trying to learn english as a second language Hypothesis -immigrants would have easier time learning english as a second language if learned before puberty than after -used two predictors of language; age of arrival, and time spent in U.S Findings -age of arrival predicted language outcomes better than time spent in U.S |
| Attachment | Refers to the close emotional bond that develops between two individuals |
| Characteristics of Attachment | 1.Proximity Seeking -refers to tendency of an infant to want to remain near its caretaker 2.Selectivity -refers to the tendency of preferring the company of some people over others |
| Stages of Attachment | 1. Indiscriminate social responsiveness (birth-2 months) 2. Discriminate social responsiveness 3. Focused attachment |
| Indiscriminate Social Responsiveness | -birth-2 months -kids show no signs of proximity seeking or selectivity -kids will respond indiscriminately to any individual who satisfies their basic biological needs |
| Discriminate Social Responsiveness | -3-7 months -infants show signs of proximity seeking and selectivity -show signs of preferring company of caretakers over strangers |
| Focused Attachment | -8-24 months -stranger anxiety: occurs when infants show anxiety around strangers -separation anxiety: occurs when infants show anxiety when separated from their caretaker -related to object permanence |
| Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation Room | First Separation: -caretaker leaves lab, and infant is alone with the stranger, which produces distress for the infant First Reunion -infant reunited with caretaker after stranger leaves -most infants settle down Second Separation: -infant is left alone by itself -most infants show distress Second Reunion -caretaker returns -infant is in room with caretaker, and stranger -most infants calm down |
| Attachment Classifications | Infants are classified into one of four categories based on how they behave in the separation and reunion episodes. 1. Secure Infants 2. Insecure/Resistant 3. Insecure/Avoidant 4. Insecure/Disorganized |
| Secure Infants | -60-65% -generally show high levels of distress in the separation episodes, but then they quickly calm down and embrace their caretaker in the reunion episodes after they stop crying |
| Resistant | -10-15% -typically show high levels of stress in the separation episodes, but unlike the secure infants, the resistant infants typically resist contact with their caretaker in the reunion episodes, and show signs of anger |
| Avoidant | -20% -typically show little or no distress during separation episodes, don't cry -typically ignore the caretaker during the reunion episodes -focus on toys in room but not caretaker |
| Disorganized | -5-10% -newest category, later added to original 3 categories -show high levels of stress throughout entire experiment -shows signs of confusion, they drool |
| Caregiving Hypothesis | -focuses on caregiving practices that determine an infant's attachment classification 1. Sensitivity: measures the degree to which parents are able to accurately able to read their infant's distress signals 2. Responsiveness: measures the degree to which parents respond quickly and effectively to relieve an infant's distress |
| Parents Effect on Security of Infants | Securely Attached -in general, parents who are high in both sensitivity and responsiveness -parents and read and understand and respond quickly Resistant -parents respond inconsistently to infant's distress -sometimes show high levels of responsiveness and other times low Avoidant -in general, parents are relatively unresponsive to infant's distress |
| Water's Study | Purpose: to examine whether attachments in the strange situation predicted popularity in pre-school Procedure: involved longitudinal design with two phases 1. Attachment (15 months) -attachment of kids determined using strange situation -kids were classified as securely, or insecurely attached -didn't differentiate between different types of insecure attachment, because they showed the same signs 2. Popularity (3.5 years) -popularity measured using PNI (peer nomination inventory) -in PNI kids in a classroom are asked to rate their peers in terms of popularity -asked kids who they like, and who they dislike Findings -attachment did predict popularity -securely attached kids were likely to be rated as 'popular' by their peers -in contrast, insecurely attached kids were less likely to be rated as popular |
| Internal Working Model | Refers to a set of beliefs and expectations about how other people will treat you, based on your early attachment, and these beliefs and expectations are based on early attachment with parents. -people who have positive IWMs are likely to develop positive relationships as adults -people who have a negative IWMs are likely to have lower quality relationships in adulthood, assumed not to be able to trust others |
| Effects of Daycare and Attachment | -leaving a child at a daycare doesn't effect attachment between child and mother -high quality childcare doesn't harm attachment -low attachment rates plus low quality child care can make attachment rates worse |
| Parallel Play | When children play alone but are aware of and interested in what another child is doing. |
| Simple Social Play | Play that begins at about 15-18 months; toddlers engage in similar activities as well as talk and smile at each other. |
| Cooperative Play | Play that is organized around a theme, with each child taking on a different role; begins at about 2 years of age. |
| Prosocial Behavior | Any behavior that benefits another person |
| Altruism | Prosocial behavior such as helping and sharing in which the individual does not benefit directly from his or her behavior |
| Empathy | Experiencing another person's feelings |
| Gender Role Development | Refers to the development of roles that society considers to be appropriate for males and females |
| Gender Constancy | -refers to the understanding that changes in an individual's appearance do not change the individual's sex -a man puts on a dress and a child is asked if it's a man or woman |
| Knowledge of Sex-typed Behaviors | Refers to the knowledge of behaviors that society considers to be appropriate for males and females |
| Theories of Gender Role Development | 1. Cognitive Developmental Theory (gender constancy) 2. Learning Theory (sex-typed behaviors) 3. Gender Schema Theory |
| Cognitive Developmental Theory (gender) | Changes in person's appearance doesn't change person's sex 1. Gender Identity (3 years)- kids can identify themselves as boys or girls -fail man in a dress test 2. Gender Stability (4 years)- kids understand that gender is a stable attribute that remain constant over time -understand that girls will grow up to become women, and boys men -still fail man in a dress test 3. Gender Constancy (5 years)- kids understand gender constancy -able to pass man in the dress test |
| Learning Theory (sex-typed behaviors) | -in general, parents reinforce sex type behaviors and punish cross-sex behaviors (behaviors society considers appropriate for the opposite sex) |
| Langlois and Down's Study | Purpose: test assumption that parents reinforce sex-type behaviors and punish cross-sex behaviors Procedure: involved putting two year old children in a playroom with their parents -two types of toys, masculine, and feminine toys, were put in the room -masculine toys, toys rated as being appropriate for boys, i.e G.I Joe dolls and Tonka trucks -feminine toys, toys rated as being appropriate for girls, i.e Barbie doll and kitchenware set -while kids were playing with toys, experimenter observed kids and categorized into sex type and cross-sex behaviors -question was whether parents reinforced kids displaying sex-type behaviors and punished them for displaying cross-sex behaviors Findings -in general, parents reinforced kids for displaying sex-type behaviors, and punished them for displaying cross-sex behaviors |
| Punishment of Cross-sex Behavior | -boys are punished more frequently for cross-sex behavior -moms are less likely to punish cross-sex behavior, and dads are more likely |
| Gender Schema Theory | -refers to beliefs and expectations about gender and gender roles -research on schema and memory make two assumptions 1. memories of previous events should be good when the events are consistent with gender schemas 2. memories for past events should be poor when those events are inconsistent with our gender schemas |
| Martin and Halverson's Study | Purpose: to examine the effect of gender schema on memory for 5 and 6 year olds Procedure: Phase 1: kids saw a video of a man and woman playing different roles, one playing a doctor, one playing a nurse, saw either sex type or atypical video -sex type video: man played doctor, woman played nurse -atypical video: woman played doctor, woman played nurse Phase 2(one week later): kids asked to remember gender of actors seen in the video Findings -gender schemas affected memories of kids who saw atypical video -kids who saw sex type video, responded correctly -kids who saw atypical video, responded incorrectly, said man played doctor and woman played nurse -kids forgot what they saw, and relied on beliefs and expectations so answered incorrectly |
| Conservation | Refers to the understanding that changes in an object's appearance doesn't change its physical properties |
| Conservation of Volume Task | Purpose: test kids understanding of conservation of liquids Procedure: Phase 1: Pre-transformation -kids shown two beakers filled with identical amounts of water and the two beakers are identical in size and shape -then asked if two beakers contained same amount of water Phase 2: Post-transformation -water from one of the original beakers is poured into tall skinny beaker -then asked if two beakers contained same amount of water Findings -concrete operational and pre-operational kids respond differently -concrete operational kids respond correctly, and say the beakers contain the same amount of water, show understanding of conservation -understand because they possess two mental operations, compensation and reverse ability -pre-operational kids respond incorrectly and say that the tall skinny beaker contain more water |
| Mental Operations | 1. Compensation 2. Reversibility |
| Compensation | Refers to the understanding that changes in one dimension of an object compensate for changes in another dimension of the object |
| Reversibility | Refers to the understanding that the transformation can be reversed to bring the object back to their original state ex. water from skinny beaker can be poured into original beaker to show same amount of water exist |
| STM Capacity | Refers to how much information that can be held in STM at once (a measurement) |
| Digit Span Test | -used to measure STM capacity -used to examine how many digits can be held in STM at once -participants hear a series of digits and then are asked to recall them a moment later in the order they were presented -STM capacity refers to the most digits that a participant can accurately recall in order |
| Factors Influencing STM Development | 1. Rehearsal Rate 2. Organization 3. Inhibition 4. Knowledge Base |
| Rehearsal Rate | -refers to how quickly items in STM can be rehearsed -positively related to memory, indicating that faster rehearsal produces better memory -positively related to age, indicating that older kids rehearse faster than younger kids |
| Organization | -aka clustering and chunking -known to influence growth of STM -refers to the ability to group items on a list into meaningful units -positively related to memory, indicating that high levels of organizations produce high levels of memory -positively related to age, indicating that older kids generally show higher levels of organization than younger kids |
| Utilization Deficiencies | Refers to a stage in development when kids use an organizational strategies, but fail to benefit from it |
| Inhibition | -refers to the ability to keep distracting information out of STM -intrusions (refer to words that are recalled but were not presented in therefore shouldn't be recalled) are used to measure inhibition ability on word recall test -positively related to memory, indicating that good inhibition abilities produce better memory -inhibition is also positively related to age, indicating that older kids have better inhibition abilities than younger kids, but generally decreases at latter end of lifespan |
| Knowledge Base | -refers to knowledge acquired over lifespan and stored in LTM -positively related to memory, indicating that more knowledge generally produces better memory -positively related to age, indicating that older kids have more knowledge than younger kids |
| Chi's Study | Purpose: to examine effect of knowledge on memory performance in two task Prediction: having more knowledge should result in better memory Procedure: two group of subjects tested, child experts and adult novices -kids differed from adults in terms of knowledge of chess -child experts: 10 year old kids who've one at least one national tournament in chess, and played regularly -adult novices: knew rules of chess, didn't play regularly, and hadn't won any tournaments Findings -kids performed better than adults in chess span test -adults performed better than the kids in digit span test -high levels of knowledge associated with high levels of memory -effects are domain specific (knowledge effect related to specific type of task) |
| Intelligence | "A very general mental ability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, [...] learn quickly and learn from experience" (WSJ, 12/13/94) |
| Characteristics of Intelligence | 1. General mental ability: influences performance on all mental tests -Positive manifold: refer to the positive correlation that are found among mental tests, when such tests are given to large and representative samples -positive correlations indicate that individuals who do well on one test, generally do well on other tests 2. Ability to learn quickly:intelligence is assumed to represent the ability to learn quickly |
| IQ Tests | Purpose: to provide information about an individual's level of intelligence, relative to others in his or her age group Major Test: Wechsler and Stanford Binet |
| Characteristics of IQ Tests | -all major IQ tests are age normed, provides information of where you stand in intelligence relative to others in your age group -tests tap diverse abilities (verbal, math, spatial, memory) -verbal: the ability to define words and answer questions about the world -math: the ability to solve arithmetic problems and math word problems -ex. given number and word problems, and timed -spatial: the ability to reason with non-verbal materials like blocks -ex. given a picture of block structure,, and then given blocks to recreate -memory: the ability to hold information in short term memory -ex. digit span text -have practical validity: the ability of the test to predict real world outcomes, at school and work |
| Binet and Simon's IQ Test | -often credited with developing the first IQ test -two educational researchers in Paris -commissioned by school board to develop a test to predict kids who were at risk of failing in school -created a set of items that had to meet two conditions; age sensitivity, and school performance 1. age sensitive -items discriminate between kids in different age groups so that older kids are more likely to get the items correct than younger kids -rules out items that kids of all ages get correct -also rules out items that kids of all ages get incorrect 2. school performance -items had to predict how well kids were going to do in schol -after items were created, they were grouped into four subtests 1. Verbal -used to measure verbal reasoning, the ability to define words, and text comprehension 2. Quantitative -used to measure the ability to solve math word problems, and to perform basic arithmetic 3. Visual/spatial -used to measure the ability to reason with non-verbal materials, i.e blocks, 4. Short-term memory -used to measure the ability to hold information in STM -IQ score provided measure of overall performance across all subtests -renamed Stanford Bignet |
| Early IQ Formula | Early Formula: IQ= (MA/CA) x 100 MA (Mental Age): refers to the hardest item that a child is able to get consistently correct ex. 7 year old constantly getting items that a 9 year old would get correct, thus MA would be 9 CA (Chronological Age): the actual age of the child Above Average (MA>CA: IQ>100) -mental age greater than chronological age Average IQ (MA=CA: IQ=100) -mental age equals chronological age Below Average (MA<Ca: IQ<100) -mental age lower than chronological age -only part of early formula that is still used in modern day formula, is 100 is average for all ages |
| Modern IQ Formula | -based on deviation scores (how much an IQ deviates from average in SD (standard deviation) units) -one standard deviation unit is 15 IQ points (1 SD= 15 IQ) |
| Wechsler IQ Tests | -most widely used, and individually administered in the world Three versions: 1. Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI): 3-7 2. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC): 7-16 3. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): 16+ |
| Myths About IQ Tests | -items on an IQ test have to resemble problems encountered in the real world in order to predict real world performance (not true) |
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