Human Anatomy and Physiology Exam II
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Created by:
jeffxtreme on July 8, 2012
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139 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 gas exchange, pH balance, production of angiotensin II, voice production | functions of the respiratory system |
| eupnea | normal quiet breathing rate |
| 12 - 20 breaths per minute | what is the rate of eupneic breathing |
| tachypnea | increased respiratory rate more than eupnea, typically shallow |
| > 20 breaths per minute, > 25 breaths per minute | breathing rate of tachypnic breathing ___, but only worrisome if over ___ |
| hyperpnea | increased ventilation that meets respiratory needs, like during exercise |
| hyperventilate | increased ventilation that exceeds respiratory needs, like during an anxiety attack |
| tachypnea; deep | both hyperpnea and hyperventillation results from __ and overly __ breaths |
| bradypnea | decreased respiratory rate |
| < 12 breaths per minute, < 10 breaths per minute | breathing of bradypneic breathing is __, but not worrisome until less than __ |
| hypopnea, hypoventilate | slow ventilation, caused by bradypnea and shallow breaths, typically during a disease state |
| dyspnea | labored breathing, as during exercise, asthma attacks, and many others |
| apnea | cessation of breathing, as in sleep apnea and sudden infant death syndrome |
| 600 million | how many alveoli in the human lungs? |
| nares -> nasal cavity -> pharynx -> larynx -> [trachea -> brochi -> terminal bronchioles] [] - lined with smooth muscles | what does the conducting zone consist of, in order?, which of them is lined with smooth muscle? |
| β-2 andrenergic receptors. Through relaxation of smooth muscle tone | which receptors control bronchodilation in the respiratory tract? How is this done? |
| acetycholine receptors | which receptors control bronchoconstriction in the respiratory tract? |
| blood vessels mucus from the mucous membranes | how does conducting zone warm and humidify air? |
| bronchoconstricts | if polluted air is breathed, the respiratory tract __ |
| mucus and nose hairs; goblet -> mucociliary escalator | __ trap larger particles, mucus generated from __ cells trap finer particles. This is all called |
| ciliated epithelial, pharynx | ___ cells propel debris in the mucus back to the __, where it is then swallowed |
| cold air, smoking | while __ just slows down ciliated cells, __ actually causes the cilia to be stuck, forcing the the user to cough to remove mucus |
| cystic fibrosis | condition in which the mucus of the body is thickened, causing frequent respiratory infections |
| 1) controls the volume of air through the R tract 2) warms and humidifies air 3) Filters and protects the respiratory tract from particulates | review: functions of the conducting zone |
| respiratory bronchioles -> alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs | what does the respiratory zone consist of, in order? |
| gas exchange | what is the function of the respiratory zone? |
| 3000 mL | volume of air that is exchanged per deep breath? |
| 90% | what percent of alveolar sacs are located in the alveolar ducts? |
| dead space | area of the lungs where there is no gas exchange |
| Anatomical dead space | volume inside the conducting zone |
| person's weight in lbs, 150 mL | volume in mL for anatomical dead space is approx equal to, average is |
| alveolar dead space | dead space due to nonfunctional alveoli, from lack of blood supply |
| physiological dead space | total dead space |
| elastic | a property of the lungs due to elastin and collagen fibers contained within the interstitium, causes lungs to recoil |
| Elastin (governs recoil) and surfactant | Compliance is due to what two factors? |
| pleura | visceral __: covers the lungs parietal __: lines the thoracic cavity and is attached to the diaphragm __l space: fluid-filled space between the two layers above __: allows the lungs to move with the thorax (all blanks are the same) |
| Pleural space | Fluid filled potential space (not tightly adjoined) between two pleural layers |
| recoil from lung, expansion of thorax (recoil from intercostals) | negative pressure in the pleural space is due what two factors |
| ∆ volume / ∆ pressure | equation for compliance |
| .13 L / cm H₂O | normal value for compliance of lungs |
| decreases, decreases | too high value for compliance = lung elasticity ___, recoil of lung ___, and v.v. |
| P = 2T / r where P is the collapsing pressure (pressure to keep alveoli inflated) T is surface tension (work to increase surface area by a certain unit) r is radius | Laplace's law equation |
| decreasing | surfactant (mostly lipid) has the effect of __ surface tension, by breaking hydrogen bonds |
| atelectasis | if surfactant is lacking, and r is low, alveoli will collapse, known as __. Also, smaller alveoli collapse into bigger alveoli |
| perfusion of the lungs | the process in which DO₂ blood is oxygenated and carried back to the heart |
| bronchial circulation | O₂ blood is carried to the lungs to bring oxygen to lung tissue through this circulation |
| spirometry, spirometer | measurement of lung volumes and capacities is called __, faciliated through use of a __ |
| Okay! | Study the spirometry volumes! |
| Forced Vital Capacity | Volume of air forcefully expired after maximal inspiration |
| 5000 mL | Normal FVC is usually this |
| FEC1 | Volume of air expired in the first second after maximal inspiration |
| 3500 to 4000 mL | Normal value for FEC1 is usually this |
| 70 to 80% | FEV1 / FVC, what is this normal value? |
| Pulmonary ventilation | The movement of air into the lungs |
| Minute ventilation | Volume of air moved into the lungs per minute |
| VE = Tidal volume * respiratory rate | The formula for minute ventilation |
| (500 mL) x (12 breaths per minute) = 6000 mL / minute | The usual minute ventilation, and the applied formula for this |
| Alveolar ventilation | Volume of air available for gas exchange per minute |
| VA = (tidal volume - anatomical dead space - alveolar dead space) * respiratory rate | What is the formula for alveolar ventilation? |
| (500 mL - 150 mL) * (12 breaths / minute) = 4200 mL / minute | What is the usual alveolar ventilation? |
| Breathing | Movement of air into and out of the lungs, require pressure gradients! |
| Poiseuille's law | Air flow in the lungs, just like in the circulatory system, is governed by this law |
| (P1 - P2) pi R^4 / 8 v l | What is the formula for Poiseuille's law? |
| By a change in volume | Ideal gas law states that in the human body, a change in pressure is usually generated by what change? |
| Barometric air pressure, PB | Atmospheric air pressure outside the body |
| Alveolar air pressure, Palv | Pressure inside an alveolus |
| Pleural pressure, Ppl | Pressure inside the pleural space, always less than the Palv, due to the recoil of the lungs and the ribs |
| Okay! | Study the breathing cycle! |
| Pneumothorax | Presence of air inside the pleural space |
| Simple pneumothorax | Ppl = Palv |
| Tension pneumothorax | Ppl > Palv, an extreme emergency situation because the lungs can push on the heart, causing a decrease in contractility |
| Pleural space | Pneumothorax is the presence of air in what space? |
| Respiratory center | bilateral network of neurons with pacemaker like activity in the medulla |
| Dorsal respiratory group | One of the two components of the respiratory center, most active during inspiration as it drives the diaphragm |
| Ventral respiratory group | One of the two components of the respiratory group, contains pacemaker neurons and is active during both inspiration and expiration as it drives the intercostals |
| Pre-Botzinger complex | Complex of pacemaker neurons inside the ventral respiratory group |
| Pontine respiratory group / pneumotaxic center | Group of neurons in the pons that regulate duration of inspiration -> Causes short, fast, shallow inspiration |
| Apnuesitc center | Groups of neurons in the pons that regulate the duration of inspiration -> causes long, slow, deep breathing |
| Cortex | Provides the voluntary aspect of breathing |
| Hypthothalmus | Provides the emotional aspect of breathing, like increased breathing during anxiety or excitement |
| Central chemoreceptors | Medulla and the pons, detects CO2 |
| Peripheral chemoreceptors, glomus cells | Located in the carotid body, detects O2 |
| CO2, O2 only affects at < 60 mm Hg | What chemical is the main stimulus to breathing? What effect does O2 have? |
| Pulmonary stretch receptors | Located in airways, inhibit breathing when lungs inflated |
| Proprioceptors and exteroreceptors | Stimulating of these receptors during exercise or pain causes stimulation of breathing, located throughout limbs and body |
| Dalton's Law | Law that states that the partial pressure of a gas is equal to (molar percentage) * (total pressure of all the gases) |
| (21 %) * (760 torr) = 160 torr | Partial pressure of O2 |
| (79 %) * (760 torr) = 600 mmHg | Partial pressure of N2 |
| 47 mmHg | Partial pressure of water is always this |
| Okay! | Study the partial pressure table! |
| Physiologic shunt | 2 % of cardiac output bypasses alveoli, due to bronchial veins (leading to the pulmonary veins) and thebesian veins (leading directly to the left atrium and ventricle) |
| Henry's law | Dissolved gas = Pgas * solubility coefficient of gas |
| 25 times | The solubility of CO2 is __ that of O2 |
| 1.5 percent | What percent of oxygen is dissolved in the plasma? |
| 98.5 % | What percent of oxygen is carried in Hb? |
| 4, iron | How many heme per hemoglobin? What is the important element? |
| SaO2 | Percent of Hb that has four O2 blinded to it |
| Left shift | A shift of SaO2 that causes an increase of affinity for hemoglobin with oxygen |
| Right shift | A shift in O2 that causes a decrease in affinity for O2 with hemoglobin |
| Pulse oximeter | A device that measures the SaO2 of arterial blood |
| As CO2 increases, temperature increases, BPG increases, pH decreases, O2 affinity decreases | How does pH, CO2, temperature, and BPG affect O2 affinity of hemoglobin? |
| BPG | Produced in RBCs during glycolysis and in greater amounts when surrounding pO2 is low |
| Body tissues, anemia, COPD | Cases where BPG is produced in high amounts (ie where blood pO2 is low) |
| Bohr effect | Increase of CO2 / decrease in pH causes right shift, while vice versa causes left shift in O2 affinities |
| Internal respiration, right shift | Gas exchange occurring at body tissues is called this, site of decreased affinity for O2 |
| External respiration, left shift | Site of gas exchange with the lungs, area of increases O2 affinity |
| 250 times, once binded increases affinity for O2 (left shift) while leaving PO2 values unchanged | How many more times does the affinity of CO outweighs the affinity of O2? What are its effects once blinded? |
| Okay! | Look at chart for SaO2 and shifts! |
| SaO2, aka O2 saturation | Percent of Hb fully saturated with four O2 |
| O2 capacity | Greatest amount of O2 that can be carried with 100 mL of blood |
| O2 content | Amount of O2 that is actually carried in 100 mL of blood |
| Plasma: 5% Hb: 5 % Bicarbonate: 90% | What percent of CO2 is carried in plasma? In Hb? In bicarbonate? |
| Haldane Effect | As more oxygen is released from Hemoglobin, more CO2 will be bound. As more oxygen is bound from Hemoglobin, more CO2 will be released |
| Okay! | Read up on chart about HCO3- transfer! |
| Perfusion: volume of blood per minute that perfumes the alveoli Ventilation: volume of air per minute that is available for gas exchange | What is the difference between perfusion and ventilation? |
| PAO2, as O2 decreases bronchoconstriction of the artirioles occur | Blood flow through artirioles through the lungs are regulated by what quality of the alveoli? |
| (4000 mL / minute) / (5000 mL / minute) = .8 | Average ratio for ventilation is approximately |
| Base, apex | Because of gravity, there is greater O2 at __ of lung and decreased O2 at __, while standing or sitting |
| O2 decreases CO2 increases | If perfusion or ventilation is decreased, what is the effect on O2 and CO2 in the arteries? |
| O2 | Level of what chemical has the greatest effect on perfusion |
| .8 | The average ratio for VA / Q is what? |
| Lying / supine | If in this position, equal blood flow throughout the body |
| VA / Q defect | If the ventilation / perfusion ratio is off, this is called |
| Pulmonary disease, heart attack | A ventilation / perfusion defect could be caused by decreased ventilation ( as during ___) or decreased perfusion (as during ___) |
| Obstructive pulmonary disease | Disease in which there is an increase in airway resistance (airway obstruction) |
| Gets trapped in the lungs, increasing RV, decreasing all other volumes | During an obstructive pulmonary disease, what happens to air? |
| FVC decreases, FEV1 decreasing even more markedly, decreasing FEV1 / FVC ratio | What happens to FEV1 and FVC during obstructive pulmonary disease? |
| Emphysema | Loss of elastic fibers in walls of bronchioles and alveoli -> increase of elastic recoil causes air to be trapped |
| Chronic bronchitis | Increase in daily mucus production and airway inflammation for at least 3 months and in 2 or more consecutive years |
| Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease | Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are two of this disease |
| Asthma | Not considered COPD (acute) but is still caused by obstruction, causes bronchoconstriction and inflammation |
| Restrictive pulmonary disease | Great difficulty getting air into the lungs, even though there is no obstruction |
| All volumes are reduced, FEV / FVC ratio is normal or slightly increased | How does restrictive pulmonary disease affect volumes? |
| Both cause ventilation defect (ventilation decreases) | What is the effect on ventilation of restrictive and obstructive diseases |
| Interstitial lung disease, fibrosis | Lung becomes stiffer, decreasing compliance and thus lowering ventilation |
| Gas exchange | On top of decreasing ventilation, interstitial lung disease also decreases __ |
| Diseases that affect resp muscles -> amytropic lateral sclerosis (Lou Gehrig's disease), Guillain Barre, muscular dystrophy | Muscles Cannot contract properly |
| Infant respiratory distress syndrome | Child does not produced enough surfactant, causing alveolar collapse |
| Acute respiratory distress syndrome | Alveolar and pulmonary capillary damage, due to trauma or illness |
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