Physical Science III
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Created by:
eliza_naveria on July 21, 2012
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326 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 The agents of metamorphism are? | heat, pressure, and chemically-active fluids |
| A fiord is a | drowned glacial trough |
| What mineral is the hardest know substance in nature? | Diamond |
| What is known as a strong parallel alignment of different mineral bands in a metamorphic rock. | Foliation |
| The water table is | A boundary between saturated rock below and unsaturated rock above. |
| The strong tendency of certain minerals to break smooth, parallel planes is known as | cleavage |
| Which one of the following is not true of glaciers? | exist only in Northern Hemisphere |
| Sedimentary rocks | may contain of fossils, hold important clues to Earths History may be economically important. (all of the above) |
| Detrital sediments would predominate in all of the following enviroments except | a salt flat |
| Obsidian exhibits a ------- texture? | glassy |
| The igneous texture is characterized by 2 distinctively different crystal sizes? | porphyritic |
| The most unreliable diagnostic property of mineral such as quartz is | color |
| Which one of the following applies to a valley glacier that lengthens (extends it terminus downslope) over a period of many years? | Accumulation exceeds wastage |
| A _______ is an erosinal feature produced only by alpine glaciation. | U-shaped Valley |
| The controlling force of mass wasting? | gravity |
| The most common drainage pattern is | dendritic |
| Abrasion and plucking generally involve what part of glacier? | the basal, sliding zone |
| Describes the total sediment load transported by a stream. | Capacity |
| The term "glacial drift" means | any sediments of glacial orgin |
| At a bend in a river, the main erosion is | on the outside of the bend |
| A ________stream pattern is developed only on growing mountains like volcanoes where the land surface is tectonically doming upward. | radial |
| The resistance of a mineral to abrasion is known as | hardness |
| A ____ is the icicle-like speleothem that grows down from the roof of a cavern. | Stalacite |
| Which of the following denotes the positively charged particles in an atom's nucleus? | protons |
| When water is pumped from a well, a depression is often produced in a water table. Such a depression is | cone of depression |
| Drumlins are __________. | not found singly, but in clusters |
| Which one is not true for minerals? | They can be a liquid, solid, or glass. |
| Permeable rock strats or sediment that transmit groundwater freely are called _____. | aquifers |
| Atoms that have an electrical charge due to a gain or loss of electrons are called | ions |
| Which of the following best defines a mineral and a rock? | In a mineral the constituent atoms are bonded in a regular, repetitive, a rock lithified or consolidated aggregate of different mineral grains. |
| Which of the following is not a fundamental particle found in atoms? | Selectron |
| Which of the rocks listed below is possible building stone? | granite |
| Igneous rock is formed | by crystalization of molten rock |
| a ______represents a former meltwater channel or tunnel in a glacial ice that ice that was filled with sand and gravel. | Esker |
| ________make up the suspended loads of most rivers and streams. | Silt and clay-sized, detrital grains |
| Which process occurs where a glacier enters the sea? | Calving |
| Which carbonate mineral reacts readily with cool, dilute hydrochloric acid to produce visible bubbles of carbon dioxide gas? | Calcite |
| As the rate of cooling increases, the size of crystals that form______. | Decreases |
| Which one of the following is not related to chemical weathering? | Frost Wedging |
| Desert pavement is the result of _______. | Deflation |
| The former, late Palozoic super continent is known as | Pangea |
| The average composition of the continental crust most closely approximates that of ___________. | granite |
| _______magma is the most abundant type erupted at oceanic spreading centers. | Basaltic |
| ______are usually the most abundant gases emitted during basaltic volcanism. | Water and Carbon dioxide |
| The ____ is a direct measure of the distance from a seismic receiving station to the focus of a distant earthquake. | Time interval between the first P and S- wave arrivals |
| On a typical seismogram, _____will show the highest amplitudes. | surface waves |
| The instrument which records earthquake events is termed a _______. | Seismograph |
| Which one of the following most accurately describes the volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands? | Shield volcanoes fed by a long lived hot spot below the Pacific Lithospheric plate |
| _______ tend to increase the explosive potential of a magma body beneath a volcano. | High Viscosity and dissolved gas |
| Which one of the following statements concerning foci and epicenters is correct? | The epicenter is at the surface directly above the focus where the earthquake initiates. |
| The ______ is an example of an active, continent-continent collision? | northward movement of India to Eurasia. |
| What of the following refers to the investigative process by which geologists identify and match sedimentary strata and other rocks of the same ages in different areas? | Correlation |
| The amount of destruction caused by earthquake vibrations is affected by | design of structures, intensity and duration of the vibrations, nature of the surface materials, all of these. |
| Which of the following is not considered pyroclastic debris? | pahoehoe |
| Linear, magnetic patterns associated with mid ocean ridges are configured as ______. | normal and reversed magnetized strips roughly parallel to the ridge. |
| Today, ____ is in about the same geographic position as during Palezoic Time. | Australia |
| Pull apart, rift zones are generally associated with ____. | a divergent plate boundary. |
| The subdivision of the geologic time scale that represents the longest time span is called a(n) | era |
| The continental drift hypotheses was rejected primarily because Alfred Wegner could not | identify a mechanism capable of moving continents |
| Cooler, Older Oceanic lithosphere sinks into the mantle at ____. | Subduction zones along the convergent plate boundaries. |
| Which of the following geologic observations would not bear directly on working out the sequence of geologic events in the area? | The feldspar and quartz contents of a granite |
| Which kind of eruptive activity is most likely to be highly explosive? | Eruptions of big, continental margin, composite cones or stratovolcanoes. |
| The surface manifestation of a mantle plum is called a____. | hotspot |
| Energy is stored adjacent to the site of a future earthquake as ___. | elastic strain |
| Most of our knowledge about Earth's interior comes from ____. | seismic waves |
| A ____ is the largest, discordant body of intrusive, igneous rock. | batholith |
| An unconformity is a buried ____. | surface of erosion separating young strata from older strata below |
| Which of the following best describes the fundamental concept of superposition? | Any sedimentary deposit accumulates on top of older rock or sediment layers |
| Which region has the greatest concentration of currently active volcanoes? | the circum-Pacific Area |
| Mount St. Helens and the other Cascade volcanoes are _____. | young, active, stratovolcanoes built on a contiental margin above a sinking slab of oceanic lithosphere |
| When a radioactive isotope decays by electron capture, the electron _____. | combines with a proton in the nucleus; the atomic number of the daughter is one less than the parent |
| The dense core of Earth is thought to consist predominantly of ____. | iron |
| Which of the following best characterizes an angular uncomformity? | Tilted strata lie below the unconformity; bedding in younger strata above is parallel to the unconformity. |
| Which one of the following statements are incorrect? | S waves travel through solids and P waves travel through liquids. |
| A _____ is an intrusive, igneous rock body that is tabular and concordant. | sill |
| What is the age of the EArth accepted by most scientist today? | 4.5 billion years |
| _______ is a major dissolved volatile constituent in both magmas and volcanic gases. | Water |
| By applying the law of superposition ______dates can be determined. | relative |
| A worm would stand a poor chance of being fossilized because | worms have no hard parts |
| The recent (geologically) volcanic activity in Yellowstone National Park is related to _____. | related to intraplate, hot spot volcanism |
| Atoms of the same element, zinc for example, have the same number of ________. | protons in the nucleus |
| Which of the following is correct for isotopes of the same element? | the atoms have different numbers of neutrons and the same number of protons |
| Which common mineral is composed entirely of silicon and oxygen? | quartz |
| Chemical weathering would be most effective ________. | in a warm, humid climate |
| Detrital sedimentary rocks are classified (named) primarily on the basis of ________. | particle size |
| . ________ is a strong, parallel alignment of different mineral bands in a metamorphic rock. | Foliation |
| The release of water vapor to the atmosphere by plants is called ________. | transpiration |
| The transfer of rock material down slope under the influence of gravity is termed ________. | mass wasting |
| A ________ stream pattern is developed only on growing mountains like volcanoes or where the land surface is tectonically doming upward | radial |
| Permeable rock strata or sediment that transmit groundwater freely are called ________. | aquifers |
| Which of the following is the correct definition of stream gradient? | the drop in elevation of a stream divided by the distance the water travels |
| Where is the world's largest ice sheet located today? | Antarctica |
| Which one of the following applies to a valley glacier that lengthens (extends its terminus downslope) over a period of many years? | Wastage exceeds accumulation. |
| Abrasion and plucking generally involve what part of a glacier? | the basal, sliding zone |
| Desert pavement is the result of ________. | deflation |
| Desert and steppe lands cover about what percentage of Earth's land area? | 30% |
| . Deep-focus earthquakes are associated with ________ plate boundaries. | convergent (subducting) |
| In the early part of the 20th century, ________ argued forcefully for continental drift. | Alfred Wegener |
| Today, ________ is in about the same geographic position as during late Paleozoic time. | Australia |
| Pull-apart, rift zones are generally associated with ________. | a divergent plate boundary |
| Which one of the following statements concerning foci and epicenters is correct? | The epicenter is at the surface directly above the focus where the earthquake initiates. |
| The ________ is a direct measure of the distance from a seismic receiving station to the focus of a distant earthquake. | time interval between the first P and S- wave arrivals |
| The ________ magnitude scale is a measure of the energy released. It does not directly measure the extent of building damage. | Richter |
| What are the smaller magnitude quakes that follow a major earthquake? | aftershocks |
| Energy is stored in rocks adjacent to the site of a future earthquake as ________. | elastic strain |
| _______ tend to increase the explosive potential of a magma body beneath a volcano | High viscosity and dissolved gas |
| Which type of basaltic lava flow has a fairly smooth, unfragmented, ropy surface? | pahoehoe |
| Which kind of eruptive activity is most likely to be highly explosive? | Eruptions of big, continental margin, composite cones or stratovolcanoes. |
| A ________ volcano is a very large, gently sloping mound composed mainly of basaltic lava flows. | shield |
| A ________ is the largest, discordant body of intrusive, igneous rock. | batholith |
| _______ was an important 18th-century English geologist and proponent of uniformitarianism. | James Hutton |
| Which of the following best describes the fundamental concept of superposition? | Any sedimentary deposit accumulates on top of older rock or sediment layers. |
| What of the following refers to the investigative process by which geologists identify and match sedimentary strata and other rocks of the same ages in different areas? | strata indexing |
| Which of the following denotes the divisions of the geologic time scale in correct order of decreasing lengths of time beginning with the longest time interval and ending with the shortest? | eon, era, period, epoch |
| . Geologically, ________ are actually submerged parts of the continents. | continental shelves |
| Submarine canyons found on the continental slope and rise are believed to have been created ________. | none of these: by rivers during the ice age by faulting . because of a plate plunging into the mantle |
| Which of the following is NOT true of deep ocean trenches? | They are geologically very stable. |
| Seamounts ________. | are volcanoes that form on the ocean floor |
| Seafloor spreading occurs along relatively narrow areas at the crests of oceanic ridges called ________. | rift zones |
| Fetch refers to ________. | a large expanse of open water over which the wind blows and generates waves |
| How are spits, hooks, and baymouth bars formed? | Sand is deposited from longshore currents |
| ______ are the maximum-amplitude tides produced when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are aligned. | Spring tides |
| ________ are currents that move sand and water parallel to the beach. | Longshore |
| Which one of the following is an artificial coastal feature? | breakwater |
| Suppose the albedo of a planet is measured to be 40 percent. This means that__ | 40 percent of the Sun's energy is reflected. |
| During the Earth's orbit around the Sun, the inclination (tilt) of the Earth's axis | remains constant at 23.5 degrees. |
| Which of the following correctly describes the equinoxes? | Days and nights are equal in length in all parts of the world |
| The Earth receives energy from the Sun by | radiation. |
| Which two gases make up a combined total of 99% of clean, dry air in the homosphere? | nitrogen and oxygen |
| As the temperature of air is reduced to its dew point, which of these is most likely to occur? | condensation |
| The change in the free air temperature as you go up into the atmosphere is called____. | environmental lapse rate |
| The most common way for air to be cooled in order that a cloud may form is by____. | rising and expanding. |
| Relative humidity indicates the _____. | nearness to saturation for the air |
| A convergence of winds near the surface is associated with cloud production because it ______. | forces the air to rise |
| the pressure gradient force is directed from higher to lower pressure _____. | everywhere |
| What is the average sea level pressure in the United States? | 1013 mb |
| what do isobars represent on a map? | lines connecting points of equal air pressure |
| The Coriolis effect occurs because of this characteristic of the Earth: | its rotation |
| the effect of friction on the wind alters its ____. | speed and direction |
| An air mass from the Gulf of Mexico is labeled ________. | mT |
| Which of the following is considered to be a boundary between two different air masses? | both warm front and cold front |
| Which of the following should have the steepest pressure gradient? | tornado |
| Typhoon is another name for a ________. | hurricane |
| Hurricanes generally are ________. | all of these: larger than tornadoes smaller than mid-latitude cyclones areas of heavy rainfall and strong winds |
| A cluster of three, large, fresh looking, impact craters shown in radar images of the surface of Venus best supports the conclusion that ________. | erosion and weathering are very slow processes on Venus |
| The ________ explains how our solar system probably formed from a giant cloud of gases and dispersed solid particles. | nebular hypothesis |
| As the solar system was forming, ________ came closest to undergoing nuclear fusion and becoming a second sun. | Earth |
| Which one of the following statements is believed to be true of comets? | They have highly elliptical orbits around the Sun. |
| _______ meteorites are thought to be analogous in composition to Earth's core | Iron |
| One of the most common units used to express stellar distance is the ________. | light-year |
| The distance to stars can be determined from ________. | stellar parallax |
| Which one of the objects listed below has the largest size? | galaxies |
| Which color stars have the highest surface temperature? | blue |
| An object in which light cannot escape because of the immense gravitational pull at its surface is called a ________. | black hole |
| composite science that draws on the methods and knowledge of biology, chemistry, physics, and geology to study all aspects of the world ocean | Oceanography |
| total amount of solid material dissolved in water | Salinity |
| World Largest Ocean | The pacific Ocean |
| rapid change in temperature with depth in ocean water | thermocline |
| rapid change of density with depth | pycnocline |
| mass per unit volume | Density |
| navigation and ranging | sonar |
| The blue planet | Earth |
| what percent of the earth surface is represented by oceans and marginal seas | 71 percent |
| continents and islands comprise with remaining percent? | 29 percent |
| Northern hemisphere is called | the land hemisphere |
| South hemisphere is called | The water hemisphere |
| sources of sea salts | 1.Chemical weathering of rocks on continents is one source 2. Second major source is Earth's interior through volcanic eruptions Process called outgassing |
| Composition of seawater has been relatively stable for millions of years | Material is removed just as rapidly as it is added |
| Processes affecting seawater salinity | 1. Primarily due to changes in the water content of the solution 2. These include the addition of fresh water due to precipitation, runoff, icebergs melting, and sea-ice melting 3.The removal of fresh water by evaporation and the formation of sea ice also affect salinity |
| A three-layered structure exists in the open ocean | 1.Shallow surface mixed zone 2.Transition zone 3.Deep zone |
| measurement of ocean depths and the charting of the shape or topography of the ocean floor | Bathymetry |
| Employs and array of sound sources and listening devices . Obtains a profile of a narrow strip of seafloor | Multibeam sonar |
| Three major topographic units of the ocean floor | Continental margins ! Ocean basin floor ! Oceanic (mid-ocean) ridge |
| Found along most coastal area that surround the Atlantic Ocean Not associated with plate boundaries Experience little volcanism Few earthquakes | Passive continental margins |
| Associated with plate boundaries | Active continental margins |
| Features comprising a passive continental margin | Continental shelf ! Continental slope ! Submarine canyons ! Turbidity currents ! Continental rise |
| Continental shelf | ! Flooded extension of the continent ! Varies greatly in width ! Gently sloping ! Contains oil and important mineral deposits ! Some areas are mantled by extensive glacial deposits ! Most consist of thick accumulations of shallow-water sediments |
| Continental slope | Marks the seaward edge of the continental shelf ! Relatively steep structure ! Boundary between continental crust and oceanic crust ! Some areas are mantled by extensive glacial deposits ! Most consist of thick accumulations of shallow-water sediments |
| Submarine canyons | Deep, steep-sided valleys cut into the continental slope ! Some are seaward extensions of river valleys ! Most appear to have been eroded by turbidity currents |
| Turbidity currents | Downslope movements of dense, sedimentladen water ! Deposits are called turbidites |
| Continental rise | Found in regions where trenches are absent ! Continental slope merges into a more gradual incline—The continental rise ! At the base of the continental slope turbidity currents that follow submarine canyons deposit sediment that forms deepsea fans |
| Deep-ocean trenches | ! Long, relatively narrow features ! Deepest parts of ocean ! Most are located in the Pacific Ocean ! Sites where moving lithospheric plates plunge into the mantle ! Associated with volcanic activity ! Volcanic islands arcs ! Continental volcanic arcs |
| Abyssal plains | Likely the most level places on Earth ! Sites of thick accumulations of sediment ! Found in all oceans |
| Seamounts and guyots | Isolated volcanic peaks ! Many form near oceanic ridges ! May emerge as an island ! May sink and form flat-topped seamounts called guyots or tablemounts |
| Mid-ocean ridge | Along the axis of some segments are deep downfaulted structures called rift valleys ! Consist of layer upon layer of basaltic rocks that have been faulted and uplifted ! Mid-Atlantic Ridge has been studied more thoroughly than any other ridge system |
| the most common sediment on the deep-ocean floor | Mud |
| Terrigenous sediment | Material weathered from continental rocks ! Virtually every part of the ocean receives some ! Fine particles remain suspended for a long time ! Oxidation often produces red and brown colored sediments |
| Biogenous sediment | Shells and skeletons of marine animals and plants ! Most common are calcareous oozes produced from microscopic organisms ! Siliceous oozes composed of skeletons of diatoms and radiolarians ! Phosphate rich materials derived from the bones, teeth, and scales of fish and other marine organisms |
| Hydrogenous sediment | Minerals that crystallize directly from seawater ! Most common types include ! Manganese nodules ! Calcium carbonates ! Metal sulfides ! Evaporites |
| Surface circulation | Ocean currents are masses of water that flow from one place to another ! Surface currents develop from friction between the ocean and the wind that blows across the surface ! Huge, slowly moving gyres |
| Five main gyres | North Pacific gyre ! South Pacific gyre ! North Atlantic gyre ! South Atlantic gyre ! Indian Ocean gyre |
| Surface circulation | Deflected by the Coriolis effect ! To the right in the Northern Hemisphere ! To the left in the Southern Hemisphere ! Four main currents generally exist within each gyre |
| Upwelling | The rising of cold water from deeper layers ! Most characteristic along west coasts of continents |
| Climate | Influence of cold currents is most pronounced in the tropics or during the summer months in the middle latitudes ! Currents from low latitudes into higher latitudes (warm currents) transfer heat from warmer to cooler areas |
| A response to density differences | Deep-ocean circulation |
| Factors creating a dense mass of water | Temperature—Cold water is dense ! Salinity—Density increases with increasing salinity ! Called thermohaline circulation |
| Energy traveling along the interface between ocean and atmosphere ! Derive their energy and motion from wind | Waves |
| The distance between a trough and a crest | Wave height |
| The horizontal distance between successive crests (or troughs) | Wavelength |
| The time interval for one full wave to pass a fixed position | Wave period |
| Wave height, length, and period depend on | Wind speed ! Length of time the wind blows ! Fetch—The distance that the wind travels ! As the wave travels, the water passes energy along by moving in a circle |
| Beaches are composed of whatever material is available | Some beaches have a significant biological component ! Material does not stay in one place |
| Wave erosion | Caused by ! Wave impact and pressure ! Breaks down rock material and supplies sand to beaches |
| Wave refraction | ! Bending of a waves ! Wave arrives parallel to shore |
| Longshore transport | Beach drift—Sediment moves in a zigzag pattern along the beach face |
| Longshore current | Current in surf zone ! Flows parallel to the shore ! Moves substantially more sediment than beach drift |
| Erosional features | Wave-cut cliff ! Wave-cut platform ! Marine terraces |
| Associated with headlands | ! Sea arch ! Sea stack |
| A ridge of sand extending from the land into the mouth of an adjacent bay with an end that often hooks landward | Spit |
| A sand bar that completely crosses a bay | Baymouth bar |
| A ridge of sand that connects an island to the mainland | Tombolo |
| Mainly along the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains ! Parallel the coast ! Originate in several ways | Barrier islands |
| Shoreline erosion is influenced by the local factors | Proximity to sediment-laden rivers ! Degree of tectonic activity ! Topography and composition of the land ! Prevailing wind and weather patterns ! Configuration of the coastline |
| Building structures | Hard stabilization |
| Barriers built at a right angle to the beach that are designed to trap sand | Groins |
| Barriers built offshore and parallel to the coast to protect boats from breaking waves | Breakwaters |
| Armors the coast against the force of breaking waves | Seawalls |
| Changes in elevation of the ocean surface ! Caused by the gravitational forces exerted upon the Earth by the ! Moon, and to a lesser extent by the ! Sun | Tides |
| Spring tide : | ! During new and full moons ! Gravitational forces added together ! Especially high and low tides ! Large daily tidal range |
| Neap tide | First and third quarters of the Moon ! Gravitational forces are offset ! Daily tidal range is least |
| Many factors influence the tides | Shape of the coastline ! Configuration of the ocean basin ! Water depth |
| Diurnal tidal pattern | A single high and low tide each tidal day ! Occurs along the northern shore of the Gulf of Mexico |
| Semidiurnal tidal pattern | Two high and two low tides each tidal day ! Little difference in the high and low water heights |
| Mixed tidal pattern | Two high and two low waters each day ! Large inequality in high water heights, low water heights, or both ! Prevalent along the Pacific Coast of the United States |
| Types of tidal currents | Flood current—Advances into the coastal zone ! Ebb current—Seaward moving water |
| Weather | Over a short period of time ! Constantly changing |
| Climate | Over a long period of time ! Generalized, composite of weather |
| Properties that are measured regularly | Temperature ! Humidity ! Cloudiness ! Precipitation ! Air Pressure ! Wind speed and direction |
| Air | mixture of discrete gases |
| Major components of clean, dry air | Nitrogen (N)—78 percent ! Oxygen (O2 )—21 percent ! Argon and other gases ! Carbon dioxide (CO2 )—0.036 percent— absorbs heat energy from Earth |
| Water vapor | Up to about 4 percent of the air's volume ! Forms clouds and precipitation ! Absorbs heat energy from Earth |
| Aerosols | Tiny solid and liquid particles ! Water vapor can condense on solids ! Reflect sunlight ! Help color sunrise and sunset |
| Ozone | Three atoms of oxygen (O3 ) ! Distribution not uniform ! Concentrated between 10 to 50 kilometers above the surface ! Absorbs harmful UV radiation ! Human activity is depleting ozone by adding chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) |
| the weight of the air above | Pressure |
| Average sea level pressure | Slightly more than 1000 millibars ! About 14.7 pounds per square inch |
| Pressure decreases with altitude | One half of the atmosphere is below 3.5 miles (5.6 kilometers) ! Ninety percent of the atmosphere is below 10 miles (16 kilometers) |
| Troposphere | Bottom layer ! Temperature decreases with altitude—Called the environmental lapse rate ! 6.5˚C per kilometer (average) ! 3.5˚F per 1000 feet (average) ! Thickness varies—Average height is about 12 kilometers ! Outer boundary is named the tropopause |
| Stratosphere | About 12 kilometers to 50 kilometers ! Temperature increases at top ! Outer boundary is named the stratopause |
| Mesosphere | About 50 kilometers to 80 kilometers ! Temperature decreases ! Outer boundary is named the mesopause |
| Thermosphere | No well-defined upper limit ! Fraction of atmosphere's mass ! Gases moving at high speeds |
| Earth motions | Rotates on its axis ! Revolves around the Sun |
| Seasons ! Result of | Changing Sun angle ! Changing length of daylight |
| Seasons ! Caused by Earth's changing orientation to the Sun | Axis is inclined 23½ degrees ! Axis is always pointed in the same direction |
| Special days (Northern Hemisphere) ! Summer solstice | June 21-22 ! Sun's vertical rays are located at the tropic of Cancer (23½ degrees north latitude) |
| Winter solstice | December 21-22 ! Sun's vertical rays are located at the tropic of Capricorn (23½ degrees south latitude) |
| Autumnal equinox | September 22-23 ! Sun's vertical rays are located at the equator (0 degrees latitude) |
| Spring equinox | March 21-22 ! Sun's vertical rays are located at the equator (0 degrees latitude) |
| always transferred from warmer to cooler objects | Heat |
| Mechanisms of heat transfer | Conduction through molecular activity ! Convection ! Mass movement within a substance ! Radiation (electromagnetic radiation) ! Velocity: 300,000 kilometers (186,000 miles) per second in a vacuum |
| Radiation (electromagnetic radiation) | ! Consists of different wavelengths ! Gamma (very short waves) ! X-rays ! Ultraviolet (UV) ! Visible ! Infrared ! Microwaves and radio waves |
| Radiation (electromagnetic radiation) | Governed by basic laws ! Hotter objects radiate more total energy per unit area than do cooler objects ! The hotter the radiating body, the shorter the wavelength of maximum radiation ! Objects that are good absorbers of radiation are good emitters as well |
| largely transparent to incoming solar radiation | Atmosphere |
| Atmospheric effects | Reflection—Albedo (percent reflected) ! Scattering ! Absorption |
| Longer wavelength terrestrial radiation is absorbed by | Carbon dioxide and water vapor ! Lower atmosphere is heated from Earth's surface |
| Differential heating of land and water | ! Land heats more rapidly than water ! Land gets hotter than water ! Land cools faster than water ! Land gets cooler than water |
| A line connecting places of equal temperature | Isotherm |
| Heat energy | Measured in calories—One calorie is the heat necessary to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius |
| Latent heat | Stored or hidden heat ! Not derived from temperature change ! Important in atmospheric processes |
| Three states of matter | Solid ! Liquid ! Gas |
| To change state, heat must be | Absorbed or ! Released |
| Evaporation | Liquid is changed to gas ! 600 calories per gram of water are added— Called latent heat of vaporization |
| Condensation | Water vapor (gas) is changed to a liquid ! Heat energy is released—Called latent heat of condensation |
| Melting | Solid is changed to a liquid ! 80 calories per gram of water are added—called latent heat of melting |
| Freezing | Liquid is changed to a solid ! Heat is released—called latent heat of fusion |
| Sublimation | Solid is changed directly to a gas (e.g., ice cubes shrinking in a freezer) ! 680 calories per gram of water are added |
| Deposition | Water vapor (gas) changed to a solid (e.g., frost in a freezer compartment) ! Heat is released |
| air that is filled with water vapor to capacity | Saturated air |
| is temperature dependent—warm air has a much greater capacity | Capacity |
| Water vapor adds pressure to the air | vapor pressure |
| Mixing ratio | Mass of water vapor in a unit of air compared to the remaining mass of dry air ! Often measured in grams per kilogram |
| Dew point temperature | Temperature to which a parcel of air would need to be cooled to reach saturation |
| Psychrometer | Compares temperatures of wet-bulb thermometer and dry-bulb thermometer: The greater the difference, the lower the relative humidity |
| Hair hygrometer | Reads the humidity directly |
| Air is compressed | Motion of air molecules increases ! Air will warm ! Descending air is compressed due to increasing air pressure |
| Air expands | Air parcel does work on the surrounding air ! Air will cool ! Rising air will expand due to decreasing air pressure |
| Dry adiabatic rate ! | ! Unsaturated air ! Rising air expands and cools at 1°C per 100 meters (5.5°F per 1000 feet) ! Descending air is compressed and warms at 1°C per 100 meters |
| Wet adiabatic rate | Commences at condensation level ! Air has reached the dew point ! Condensation is occurring and latent heat is being liberated ! Heat released by the condensing water reduces the rate of cooling ! Rate varies from 0.5°C to 0.9°C per 100 meters |
| Orographic lifting | Elevated terrains act as barriers ! Result can be a rainshadow desert |
| Frontal wedging | ! Cool air acts as a barrier to warm air ! Fronts are part of the storm systems called middle-latitude cyclones |
| Convergence | where the air is flowing together and rising (low pressure) |
| Clouds | Made of millions and millions of ! Minute water droplets, or ! Tiny crystals of ice |
| cloud Classification based on | Form (three basic forms) ! Cirrus—High, white, thin ! Cumulus—Globular cloud masses often associated with fair weather ! Stratus—Sheets or layers that cover much of the sky Classification based on height ! High clouds—Above 6000 meters ! Types include cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus ! Middle clouds—2000 to 6000 meters ! Types include altostratus and altocumulus ! Low clouds—Below 2000 meters ! Types include stratus, stratocumulus, and nimbostratus (nimbus means "rainy") Clouds of vertical development ! From low to high altitudes ! Called cumulonimbus ! Often produce rain showers and thunderstorms |
| Fog | Considered an atmospheric hazard ! Cloud with its base at or near the ground ! Most fogs form because of ! Radiation cooling, or ! Movement of air over a cold surface |
| Advection fog | Warm, moist air moves over a cool surface |
| Radiation fog | Earth's surface cools rapidly ! Forms during cool, clear, calm nights |
| Upslope fog | Humid air moves up a slope ! Adiabatic cooling occurs |
| Steam fog | Cool air moves over warm water and moisture is added to the air ! Water has a steaming appearance |
| Frontal fog, or precipitation fog | Forms during frontal wedging when warm air lifted over colder air ! Rain evaporates to form fog |
| Cloud droplets | ! Less than 20 micrometers (0.02 millimeter) in diameter ! Fall incredibly slow |
| Ice crystal process | Temperature in the cloud is below freezing ! Ice crystals collect water vapor ! Large snowflakes form and fall to the ground or melt and turn to rain |
| Collision-coalescence process | Warm clouds ! Large hygroscopic condensation nuclei ! Large droplets form ! Droplets collide with other droplets during their descent |
| Rain | Droplets have at least a 0.5 millimeter diameter |
| Drizzle | Droplets have less than a 0.5 millimeter diameter |
| Snow | —Ice crystals, or aggregates of ice crystals |
| Sleet and glaze | Small particles of ice in winter |
| Hail | Hard rounded pellets ! Concentric shells ! Most diameters range from 1-5 centimeters |
| Formation | Occurs in large cumulonimbus clouds with violent up- and down-drafts ! Layers of freezing rain are caught in up- and downdrafts in the cloud ! Pellets fall to the ground when they become too heavy |
| Rime | Forms on cold surfaces ! Freezing of ! Supercooled fog, or ! Cloud droplets |
| Rain | Easiest form to measure ! Measuring instruments ! Standard rain gauge ! Uses a funnel to collect and conduct rain ! Cylindrical measuring tube measures rainfall in centimeters or inches |
| Snow has two measurements | Depth ! Water equivalent ! General ratio is 10 snow units to 1 water unit ! Varies widely ! Radar is also used to measure the rate of rainfall |
| tandard sea level pressure is 1013.2 mb | Millibar (mb) |
| Standard sea level pressure is 29.92 inches of mercury | Inches of mercury |
| Mercury barometer | Invented by Torricelli in 1643 ! Uses a glass tube filled with mercury |
| Aneroid barometer | "Without liquid" ! Uses an expanding chamber |
| continuously records the air pressure | Barograph |
| Horizontal movement of air | Out of areas of high pressure ! Into areas of low pressure |
| Pressure gradient force (PGF) | Isobars,Pressure gradient |
| Lines of equal air pressure | Isobars |
| Pressure change over distance | Pressure gradient |
| Coriolis effect | Apparent deflection in the wind direction due to Earth's rotation ! Deflection is the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere |
| Friction | Only important near the surface ! Acts to slow the air's movement |
| Generally blow parallel to isobars | geostrophic winds |
| Jet stream | "River" of air ! High altitude ! High velocity (120-240 kilometers per hour) |
| Cyclone | A center of low pressure ! Pressure decreases toward the center ! Winds associated with a cyclone ! In the Northern Hemisphere ! Inward (convergence) ! Counterclockwise ! In the Southern Hemisphere ! Inward (convergence) ! Clockwise ! Associated with rising air ! Often bring clouds and precipitation |
| Anticyclone | A center of high pressure ! Pressure increases toward the center ! Winds associated with an anticyclone ! In the Northern Hemisphere ! Outward (divergence) ! Clockwise ! In the Southern Hemisphere ! Outward (divergence) ! Counterclockwise ! Associated with subsiding air ! Usually bring "fair" weather |
| Underlying cause | unequal surface heating |
| Equatorial low pressure zone | Rising air ! Abundant precipitation |
| Subtropical high pressure zone | Subsiding, stable, dry air ! Near 30 degrees latitude ! Location of great deserts ! Air traveling equatorward from the subtropical high produces the trade winds ! Air traveling poleward from the subtropical high produces the westerly winds |
| Subpolar low-pressure zone | Warm and cool winds interact ! Polar front—An area of storms |
| Polar high-pressure zone | Cold, subsiding air ! Air spreads equatorward and produces polar easterly winds ! Polar easterlies collide with the westerlies along the polar front |
| Seasonal temperature differences disrupt the | Global pressure patterns ! Global wind patterns |
| Monsoon | Seasonal change in wind direction ! Occur over continents ! During warm months ! Air flows onto land ! Warm, moist air from the ocean ! Winter months ! Air flows off the land ! Dry, continental air |
| Air flow | is interrupted by cyclones ! Cells move west to east in the Northern Hemisphere ! Create anticyclonic and cyclonic flow ! Paths of the cyclones and anticyclones are associated with the upper-level airflow |
| Produced from temperature differences | Local winds |
| Direction ! Winds are labeled from where they originate (e.g., north wind—blows from the north toward the south) ! Instrument for measuring wind direction is the wind vane ! Direction indicated by either ! Compass points (N, NE, etc.) ! Scale of 0 degrees to 360 degrees ! Prevailing wind comes more often from one direction | wind direction/measurement |
| Speed | Often measured with a cup anemometer |
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