Psychology Review Ch. 7-9
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starbook616 on January 2, 2008
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142 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 consciousness | our awareness of ourselves and our environment |
| biological rhythms | periodic physiological fluctuations |
| circadian rhythm | the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle |
| REM sleep | a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active |
| alpha waves | the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state |
| sleep | periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness - as distinct from consciousness |
| hallucinations | false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus |
| delta waves | the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep |
| insomnia | recurring problems in falling or staying asleep |
| narcolepsy | a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times |
| sleep apnea | a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings |
| night terrors | a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, this disorder occurs during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered |
| dream | a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind |
| manifest content | according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content) |
| latent content | according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that this functioned as a safety valve |
| REM rebound | the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivations (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep) |
| hypnosis | a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviours will spontaneously occur |
| posthypnotic suggestion | a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviours |
| dissociation | a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviours to occur simultaneously with others |
| psychoactive drugs | a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood |
| tolerance | the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect |
| withdrawal | the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drugs |
| physical dependence | a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued |
| psychological dependence | a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions |
| addiction | compulsive drug craving and use |
| depressants | drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions |
| barbiturates | drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment |
| opiates | opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety |
| stimulants | drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, concaine and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions |
| amphetamines | drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes |
| methamphetamines | a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels |
| ecstasy (MDMA) | a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition |
| hallucinogens | psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input |
| LSD | a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid |
| THC | the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations |
| near-death experience | an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations |
| dualism | the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact |
| monism | the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing |
| learning | a relatively permanent change in an organism's behaviour due to experience |
| associative learning | learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning) |
| classical conditioning | a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning |
| behaviourism | the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behaviour without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2) |
| unconditioned response (UR) | in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth |
| unconditioned stimulus (US) | in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response |
| conditioned response (CR) | in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) |
| conditioned stimulus (CS) | in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response |
| acquisition | the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response |
| extinction | the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced |
| spontaneous recovery | the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response |
| generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
| discrimination | in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
| operant conditioning | a type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher |
| respondent behaviour | behaviour that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behaviour learned through classical conditioning |
| operant behaviour | behaviour that operates on the environment, producing consequences |
| law of effect | Thorndike's principle that behaviours followed by favourable consequences become more likely, and that behaviours followed by unfavourable consequences become less likely |
| operant chamber | a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research |
| shaping | an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behaviour toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour |
| reinforcer | in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behaviour it follows |
| positive reinforcement | increasing behaviours by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. It is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response |
| negative reinforcement | increasing behaviours by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. It is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response |
| primary reinforcer | an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need |
| conditioned reinforcer | a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer |
| continuous reinforcement | reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs |
| partial (intermittent) reinforcement | reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement |
| fixed-ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses |
| variable-ratio schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses |
| fixed-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed |
| variable-interval schedule | in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals |
| punishment | an event that decreases the behaviour that it follows |
| cognitive map | a mental representation of the layout of one's environment |
| latent learning | learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it |
| intrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behaviour for its own sake |
| extrinsic motivation | a desire to perform a behaviour due to promised rewards or threats of punishment |
| observational learning | learning by observing others |
| modeling | the process of observing and imitating a specific behaviour |
| mirror neurons | frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. It may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy |
| prosocial behaviour | positive, constructive, helpful behaviour. The opposite of antisocial behaviour |
| memory | the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information |
| flashbulb memory | a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
| encoding | the processing of information into the memory system -- for example, by extracting meaning |
| storage | the retention of encoded information over time |
| retrieval | the process of getting information out of memory storage |
| sensory memory | the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system |
| short-term memory | activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten |
| long-term memory | the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences |
| working memory | a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory |
| automatic processing | unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings |
| effortful processing | encoding that requires attention and conscious effort |
| rehearsal | the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage |
| spacing effect | the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice |
| serial position effect | our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list |
| visual encoding | the encoding of picture images |
| acoustic encoding | the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words |
| semantic encoding | the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words |
| imagery | mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding |
| mnemonics | memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
| chunking | organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically |
| iconic memory | a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second |
| echoic memory | a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds |
| long-term potentiation (LTP) | an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory |
| amnesia | the loss of memory |
| implicit memory | retention independent of conscious recollection (also called procedural memory) |
| explicit memory | memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (also called declarative memory) |
| hippocampus | a neural centre that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage |
| recall | a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-black test |
| recognition | a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test |
| relearning | a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time |
| priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory |
| deja vu | that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience |
| mood-congruent memory | the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood |
| proactive interference | the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information |
| retroactive interference | the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information |
| repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories |
| misinformation effect | incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event |
| source amnesia | attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined |
| cognition | the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating |
| concept | a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people |
| prototype | a mental image or best example of a category |
| algorithm | a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier -- but also more error-prone -- use of heuristics |
| heuristic | a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms |
| insight | a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions |
| confirmation bias | a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions |
| fixation | the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving |
| mental set | a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past |
| functional fixedness | the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving |
| representative heuristic | judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevent information |
| availability heuristic | estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common |
| overconfidence | the tendency to be more confident than correct -- to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments |
| framing | the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments |
| belief bias | the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid |
| belief perseverance | clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited |
| language | our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning |
| phoneme | in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit |
| morpheme | in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) |
| grammar | in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others |
| semantics | the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning |
| syntax | the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language |
| babbling stage | beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech developing in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language |
| one-word stage | the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words |
| two-word stage | beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements |
| telegraphic speech | early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram -- "go car" -- using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words |
| linguistic determinism | Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think |
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