AP Euro Ch. 15
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HorseGurll77 on March 4, 2010
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68 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Ancien Régime or Old Regime | Term used following the French Revolution to describe the social, political, and economic powers that existed in France before 1789. Became applied to all of pre-revolutionary Europe Rule of absolute monarchies with growing bureaucracies (excluding Great Britain) Scarcity of food, predominance of agriculture, slow transport, competitive oversea empires. People saw themselves as members of groups, not individuals. Tradition, hierarchy, corporate feeling, and privilege were dominant social feelings. |
| Social Features of Pre-Revolutionary Europe | Aristocratic elites with inherited legal privileges Established churches related to state and aristocracy. Urban labor forces organized into guilds. Rural peasantry subject to high taxes and feudal dues. |
| Maintenance of Tradition | Eighteenth century Europeans looked to past; few outside of government, bureaucracy, merchants, or the Enlightenment considered change desirable. Nobles resisted change because they wanted to avoid intrusion by monarchs Peasants wanted their customary manorial rights to land, courts, and grievance procedures Except for the industrial growth of Britain, Europe's economy was largely traditional |
| Hierarchy in Old Regime | Medieval system of rank and degree became more rigid in eighteenth century: several cities had laws regulating dress to make class distinction easier. People did not have individual rights, but rights based on the social communities (church, guild, university, etc.) in which they were members. Rights include practice of certain professions, exemption from certain penalties, etc. |
| Aristocracy in Eighteenth Century | Nobility constituted one to five percent of population in any given country; despite minority, they were the wealthiest and most powerful members of society. Held special legislatures in many nations; Poland and Hungary's legislative bodies ONLY had nobles. Land provided large source of income, but influenced society in other ways. In Spain, it was assumed that nobles were considered idle. In other places, nobility fostered change and commercial spirit; this helped protect noble wealth, and in Great Britain and France gave nobility a common interest with commercial classes. |
| British Nobility | Formed the smallest, wealthiest, best defined, and most socially responsible aristocracy in Europe. Consisted of 400 families where the eldest male held a chair in the House of Lords; corruption allowed them to control seats in the House of Commons as well. Estates were from 1,000 to 50,000 acres; nobility held 1/4 of Britain's arable land. Invested wealth in commerce, real estate, and industrial ventures. Since only oldest son inherited title, younger sons moved to commerce, army, professions, or church. Had few legal privileges, but their control of government gave them great social influence. Dominated English politics and society. |
| Peerage | English term for the title held by eldest son, and the privileges that came with it. |
| French Nobility | Numbered 400,000; divided between "nobles of the sword" (derived from military service) and "nobles of the robe" (served the bureaucracy or purchased a title): quarreled, but defended common privileges. Divided into those who held favor or office with royal court and those who did not. Court nobility was immensely rich, and often appointed to high offices. Provincial nobility (hobereaux) were not as well off. All held certain privileges that separated them from normal society. |
| Hobereaux | French term for provincial nobility; little more than rich peasants, due to lack of bureaucratic offices. |
| Taille | A land tax that formed the basic tax of the Old Regime in France; example of a tax exempted by the French nobility |
| Vingtieme | Translates to "twentienth"; a theoretical income tax paid by the nobility, but rarely actually paid. |
| Corvees | Program of forced labor in public works; exempted by French Nobility |
| Eastern European Nobility | Largely defined by military traditions in the aristocracy. In Poland, there were thousands of szlachta. Austrian and Hungarian nobility had broad judicial power, and enjoyed a degree of tax exemption. After the accession of Frederick the Great, Junkers in Prussia became more powerful as they were drawn into state and military service. Russia developed a noble class through the Table of Ranks, which soon devoted itself to resisting state service. Empress Anna and Peter III reduced the needs of nobles to perform state service, while Catherine the Great laid out nobility's rights |
| Szlachta | Polish nobility; exempt from taxes after 1741. Possess life or death rights over serfs until 1768. Most were poor, with few rich nobles controlling Poland's political life. |
| Prince Esterhazy | The wealthiest member of the nobility in Hungary: owned ten million acres of land. |
| Empress Anna | r. 1730 - 1740) - Russian empress who reduced compulsory state service to 25 years. |
| Peter III | (r. 1762 - 1762) - Russian emperor who exempted highest nobility from state service |
| Catherine The Great | (r. 1762 - 1796) - Russian empress who helped reaffirm rights of nobility. |
| Charter of the Nobility | Legally defined rights of nobility; asked for voluntary state service in return for exemption from taxes and other rights. |
| Aristocratic Resurgence | Europe-wide movement to protect noble status from increasing monarchial power. Nobility attempted to make attaining nobility more difficult to preserve uniqueness. Pushed to reserve positions in bureaucracy and military to limit monarchial. Attempted to use existing institutions like parlements to exercise power. Increased financial power through tax exemptions and collection of feudal dues. |
| Land and Peasantry | 3/4 of Europeans lived in the country. Except for landowners and nobility, most were poor. Situation was different in different countries; English and French were mostly free, while Eastern Europeans were bound to land. All were subservient to landowners, who controlled authoritative institutions. |
| Banalites | Feudal dues owed by French peasants their seigneurs |
| Seigneur | Term for a French landowner who held control over French peasantry. |
| Robot | Compulsory service required by serfs in many Habsburg lands |
| Barshchina | A quota of six days a week of labor that Russian landlords could demand from their serfs. |
| Cift | Term that refers to the domain of a landlord in the Ottoman-influenced areas of Europe |
| Pugachev's Rebellion | Peasant rebellion where Emelyan Pugachev promised serfs freedom from their lords should they succeed; they didn't. This was the largest peasant rebellion in the eighteenth century, though others took place in Bohema and Austria. |
| English Game Laws | Prime example of aristocratic manipulation of laws to its own advantage. Only landowners could hunt; Many were excluded from hunting, including poor and merchants. This was done to preserve superiority of landed aristocracy. Game laws were passed by aristocratically-controlled legislators and enforced by aristocracy. Poachers were persecuted, though poor often poached for food. Black market for poaching to provide meats in cities developed. |
| Higglers | Intermediaries who bought poached meat and smuggled it into cities to be sold by poulterers; later replaced by coachmen. |
| Family Economy | Economy based on small business and home-made goods; businesses were largely family-employed. Fostered due to economic inability to live outside of a household. Everyone worked, and shared their earnings with all. Artisans would train their children. |
| Northwestern European Household | Contained married couples and children; 5-6 people. High mortality; grandparents rarely lived with grandchildren. "Nuclear" family model. Children left home in teens to find work: some might stay to learn valuable trade. Showed neolocalism; Young people married relatively late. Servants were common |
| Neolocalism | Practice of moving away from home to start a new home. |
| Eastern European Household | Larger households, with 9+ people. Life revolved around adding to current household, not starting new one. Policies to prevent movement between manors, low household populations, promoted this model. |
| Women and the Family Economy | Women life experience largely based on ability to maintain a home. Women were economically and socially tied to marriage; independence was rare. Learned housekeeping and skills in the home; artisans' daughters often stayed to learn trade skills, while farming daughters would often become useless and go on to become servants to gain a dowry. On self-supporting farms, wives carried things. If husband did other things, wife managed farm. Wives of artisans helped manage and run business. |
| Children and the Family Economy | Childbirth brought vulnerability, with associated diseases and additional burden. Childbirth not always welcome; poor would often perform infantcide. Late 17th and early 18th century saw interest in preserving lost children with foundling hospitals Abandoned children were surrounded with sorrow; few were reclaimed or survived. Though not as pervasive as in modern day, interest in education of children appeared. In more modern times, children were reared for individual citizenry, while Old Regime-childhood involved education to contribute to the family. |
| Agricultural Revolution | A period of innovation in agriculture spurred by attempts to capitalize on inflation of food prices; the commercialization of agriculture met resistance by peasants hoping to preserve traditional farming methods. Generally started in the Netherlands due to pressures of growing population and shrinking land, spreading to other countries. |
| Cornelius Vermuyden | A Dutch engineer who was hired by English landlords to drain thousands of acres around Cambridge. |
| Jethro Tull | Famous agricultural innovator who suggested the use of the iron plow and planting seed by drill: these advancements led to the increased cultivation of land without leaving it fallow |
| Charles Townsend | Innovator who transmitted Dutch knowledge of cultivating sandy soil; also instituted crop rotation program that exchanged wheat and other food crops with crops that would regenerate nutrients and provide animal fodder (leading to more meat, and thus food). |
| Robert Bakewell | British agriculturalist who made advances in animal breeding to produce more animal products. |
| Arthur Young | Editor of the Annals of Agriculture, and secretary of the British Board of Agriculture. |
| Annals of Agriculture | Arthur Young - Important period agricultural book |
| Enclosures | System of planting that replaced three-field crop rotations; involved fencing of common lands and transformation of strips into block fields. Brought turmoil to rural areas for upsetting current balance, which was designed to provide a steady-yet-static food supply. Controversial, as they disrupted traditional communities but allowed increased food production. Represented shift to a more commercially-centered treatment of countryside and peasants |
| Limited improvements for Eastern Europe | Chief method of increasing production was use of previously untilled land; squeezed more labor from serfs, but not productive for land. Eastern landlords were not as ambitious in gaining profits, and thus the only significant nutritional gain was the introduction of potatoes and maize. |
| Population Growth | This period marked beginning of steady growth of European population, bringing with it rise in food prices and rise in demand for goods. - Europe's population was 100 mil in 1700; by 1800, 190 mil. Caused by decrease in mortality due to lack of war or plague, Hygiene and sanitation helped, but not new medical knowledge. Improved production of grain and the introduction of the potato helped to spur growth. Created new demands for food, goods, jobs, etc. Caused growth of labor pool, and social discontent. |
| Industrial Revolution | The achievement of sustained economic growth without plateauing. At social costs, this revolution raised production of goods and demanded a large skilled labor force. Raised standard of living, reduced poverty, and gave control over nature at cost of environment. Called a revolution after the French Revolution; economic change of Britain seen as equivalent to political change of French. |
| Revolution of Consumption | Demand was an important part of the Industrial Revolution. Revolution increased supply of consumer goods, fulfilling huge supply for these goods. Spurred by increase in disposable income across Europe. Spurred by development of marketing by people such as Josiah Wedgwood; had to stimulate demand for goods. Challenged social assumptions of the day; servants could dress well, for example. Despite critics of this view of luxury and comfort, it came to dominate Western Europe. |
| Industrial Revolution in Britain | Britain at this time was the home of the Industrial Revolution. London was the largest city in Europe, promoting the spread of marketing and development of consumerism. Social structure encouraged consumption of goods to imitate the well-off. Britain had a large area of free-trade, good natural resources, efficient banking, and heavy (but fair) taxation with few exemptions. British society was mobile; people could rise socially through wealth. |
| Domestic System of Textile Production | System where merchants would take their fibers to homes to be spun, then other homes to be woven. System worked with family economy, but demand started to outstrip production. This spurred development of inventions to automate process. |
| John Kay | Inventor who created an imbalance between weavers and spinners by creating a device to increase efficiency of weavers; spinners could not create thread to keep up |
| Spinning Jenny | Device by James Hargreaves that allowed for multIple spools of thread to be spun (started at 16, 120 by end of century). |
| James Hargreaves | Creator of Spinning Jenny |
| Water Frame | water-powered device by Richard Arkwright that allowed For the production of purely cotton fabric; loss of patent allowed for the the free use and proliferation of this device |
| Richard Arkwright | Creator of the Water Frame |
| Delayed Adoption of Revolution | It took years for many innovations to be fully accepted into society. Creation of steam engine to run textile machinery by James Watt allowed increase of urbanization and industrialization |
| Steam Engine | Important for being the first source of power not dictated by nature; allowed humanity a portable and practically unfaltering source of power. Thomas Newcomen invented first steam-driven engine, but large and inefficient. Used in mines, nonetheless. James Watt greatly increased efficiency for use in water pumping. Eventually improved for other applications. Became the primary power source for all industry. |
| James Watt | Scottish engineer who improved the Newcomen engine with the help of Matthew Boulton. The steam engine spread slowly, but by the early nineteenth century became the primary engine for all industry. |
| Matthew Boulton & John Wilkinson | Metalworkers with whom James Watt worked to create his steam engine. |
| Iron Production | Iron is the chief element of all heavy industry and transport: production held back by three main factors. Charcoal (which did not burn as hot) was used rather than coke (from coal). Furnaces could not get hot enough reliably. There was little demand for iron. Henry Cort helped to improve the Iron-making process. All of these improvements helped increase demand and use of iron. |
| Henry Cort | Developed method of stirring molten ore to remove slag (impurities) and thus create better iron. Also developed rolling mills to constantly shape molten ore into various shapes. |
| Impact of Revolutions on Women | Revolutions in agriculture and industry largely displaced the traditional roles of women. Ex: Women used to make goods, but now goods were bought from factories. The transformation of farming made it impossible for women to contribute, and popular sentiment removed them from the farming workforce. The rise of industrialized textiles removed women's ability to spin wool and weave for income; most were displaced from this line of work. Moved into poorly paying cottage industries like knitting and stitching. Reputation of working women suffered. Domestic service grew, as it was seen as more respectable than cottage industries. By end of 18th century, workplaces of men and women had become separated. Women's work became associated with home; women's separation from "modern" work generated assumption that only women could do such work. Women were paid less than men. |
| Urbanization in Europe | Cities grew during this time; in 1500 there were 156 cities larger than 10,000 people, while in 1800 there were 363 cities larger than 10,000 people. Growth was most vigorous in capitals and ports; capitals due to success of monarchies and burgeoning of bureaucracy, while ports due to overseas trade. Landlocked trading cities, medieval industrial cities, and ecclesiastical centers declined; putting-out system of industrialization moved to rural areas. Mid-18th century saw decline in growth of large cities and rise of new cities and smaller cities. Caused by overall population increase and stimulation of growth caused by factories near smaller towns and cities. Improved agriculture promoted growth of market towns to serve agriculture and give farmers access to goods. |
| Social Divisions In the Eighteenth Century | Urban industrial centers had a striking contrast between the rich and poor. Poverty, while not as bad in the countryside, was more visible in urban areas through crime, prostitution, etc. Cities were often hellholes (book's term) for the poor and dispossessed. Public executions were common. |
| The Upper Class | - Consisted of nobles, merchants, bankers, and government officials. Constituted an oligarchy that controlled city councils. Some continental cities were controlled by artisan guilds, but commercial people were most often in control of cities. |
| The Middle Class (Bourgeosie) | Consisted of merchants, trades people, bankers, and professionals. Diverse and divided, with deep resentment for those wealthy on commerce or social connection. Had less wealth than nobles, but more than urban artisans; income had little to do with land, and benefitted from increased trade and commerce. Driven by desire to move up in society; seen as aggressive, ambitious, and supportive of reform and change. Fostered the revolution of consumption by both owning the industries producing goods and buying these goods. Could not gain noble titles, but could enjoy material comfort. Nobility and middle class clashed; Nobility shared the middle-class support of commerce, but was bothered by middle class attempts to emulate nobility (which was seen as threat to their privileges). Social rising restricted by nobility's privileges, inefficiencies of monarchial bureaucracies, and by aristocracy controlling patronage. Rising to increase political power and social prestige: issues were over power, not values or goals of class. Feared lower class, as it was seen as a threat to middle class safety and a drain on resources |
| Artisans | Single largest group in a city, consisting of grocers, carpenters, butchers, printers, etc. Conservative values, due to vulnerability of economic situation. Sought to emulate middle class, thanks to increased amount of consumer goods. Worked in small shops influenced by guilds, which had lost power at this time. Guilds played conservative role, preserving jobs and skills rather than seeking growth. Restricted teaching of skill to limit competition. Guilds provided framework for advancement; allowed boy to enter apprenticeship, journeyman, etc. |
| Urban Riots | Riots caused by artisan classes, whose conservative values created a sense of economic justice. Bread, being the chief food of the poor, was a hot topic. If bread prices grew too high, riots would ensue involving the redistribution and sale of bread for a "just" price. Danger of bread riots restricted the greed of merchants: these disturbances set the price of bread at the "just" price. Riots allowed otherwise unrepresented people to make their will known; one example is London Protestant mobs that compelled the withdrawal of acts to legalize the naturalization of Jews. Violence was normally directed against property; usually only wanted to restore endangered rights. The late-eighteenth century saw the increasing use of political motives; riots would often have upper class leaders and instigators (Parlements in Paris often urged crowds in monarchial disputes, Genevans supported riots against oligarchy, Britons supported attacks against English sympathizers of French Revolution). |
| Jews In The Eighteenth Century | largely based in Eastern Europe, specifically Lithuania, Poland, and Ukraine. In 1762, Catherine the Great specifically excluded Jews in a manifesto inviting people to move to Russia: while this was relaxed, Jews still felt the need for imperial protection. Jews usually did not enjoy the rights of other inhabitants without expressed concession by rulers; they were regarded as resident aliens for all intents and purposes. Jews lived in separate communities, called ghettos. Treated as a distinct people religiously and legally; in Poland they were self-governing, while elsewhere they were not permitted to mix in standard society. A few Jews became influential as financiers of rulers' wars as "court Jews." Most famous was Samuel Oppenheimer. Most Jews lived in poverty in the most undesirable sections of towns; Virtually all social institutions kept them inferior to Christian society. Important to note that division was religious; converts were welcome in social institutions. Those who stuck to their beliefs were persecuted (Could not freely pursue professions, could have property confiscated, could have children taken away, expelled from homes, excluded from politics.) |
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