Psych 102
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113 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 impression formation | the processes by which we form impressions of people |
| (Asch) central traits | words around which people organize their impressions |
| autokinetic effect | the perception of apparent motion |
| social psychology | the scientific study of how people think about (Asch), influence (Sherif), and relate to (Kitty Genovese) on another |
| field-based research | studies human behavior as it takes place in its natural setting |
| laboratory studies | studies that take place in a controlled setting (lab) |
| problems of surveys | representativeness of sample, it's wording, and the number of choices provided |
| correlation | the linear relation between two individuals |
| variable | any property of a person or thing that is free to vary |
| positive correlation | increases in one variable to to increases in the other (or decrease --> decrease) |
| inverse correlation | increases in one variable lead to decreases in the other variable |
| no correlation | two variables show no linear relation |
| independent variable | the variable that precedes or causes the dependent variable |
| dependent variable | the variable affected by the independent variable |
| bystander effect | with many bystanders, no single bystander feels the need to take responsibility (more bystanders = less likely anyone will take action) |
| self as known (William James) | the part of the self that can be treated as an "object of perception" (me) |
| self as knower (William James) | aspect of the self that experiences and perceives the self as known (I) |
| behavorism | belief scientific treatment of psychology must be observable |
| (Bem's) theory of self perception | we often don't know what we think or feel until we see what we do |
| Insufficient Reward Study | (Festinger & Carlsmith) - Participants told to spin pegs and tell others its fun. Those given money to tell others it was fun rated it honestly as boring while those paid little rated it honestly as fun. |
| Overjustification Effect Study | Lepper, Greene & Nisbett - kids playing with pens stopped after being given an award because they attributed their actions due to the reward and not free will |
| James - Lange Theory | body changes follow directly the perception of an exciting fact, those changes are the emotion (proved wrong by Cannon) |
| Two Factor Study / Cognitive Labeling Theory | (Schacter and Singer) an emotional experience requires both a physiological state of arousal and a cognitive context to interpret that arousal |
| Insomnia Study | (Storm and Nisbett) - gave placebos to insomniacs. those who attributed their restlessness to the pill slept better than those told the pill would help them sleep |
| Self Awareness Theory | our conscious attention can either be directed inward toward the self or outward toward the external world |
| Halloween Study | (Beamon et al) - children stole less when they could see themselves in a mirror |
| Work of Hill and Young | proposed people may reduce self-awareness through alcohol consumption |
| beneffectance | people like to see themselves as the origin of good things that happen to them but are reluctant to see themselves as the origin of bad things that happen |
| self-handicapping | the process of setting up excuses for our behavior (Bergas and Jones - smart/dumb pills) |
| attribution | the processes by which we attempt to understand the causes of behavior of others |
| naive psychology | the idea we try to search for the causes of others behavior (Heider) |
| dispositional attribution | behavior due to characteristics (more likely thought when the behavior is socially undesirable) |
| situational attribution | behavior due to circumstances |
| Castro Study | (Jones and Harris) When subjects thought the content of the speech was coerced they were less likely to believe the speech reflected the underlying ideals of the writer |
| (KCM) distinctiveness | does the actor like all movies or only this one? |
| (KCM) consensus | do others find the movie enjoyable or just the actor? |
| (KCM) consistency | is the movie consistently liked better in some situations than in others? |
| Fundamental Attribution Error | we typically attribute behavior of others to their underlying dispositions ignoring the situational forces (Ross) |
| Actor-Observor Difference | obersorvers tend to favor dispositional attributions for an actor's behavior while actors tend to favor situational attributions for their own behavior |
| Symbolic Interactionist Approach | belief the self cannot be understood in isolation; must be studied in interaction with others |
| The Incongruency Effect | (Srull) showed certain behaviors are recalled better than others - incongruent > congruent > irrelevant |
| Congruent Behaviors | behaviors consistent with our general impression of a person |
| Incongruent Behaviors | behaviors inconsistent with our general impression of a person |
| Irrelevant Behaviors | behaviors that are irrelevant to our general impression of the person |
| Srull's Impression Formation Model | able to predict both the amount of info recalled as well as the oder in which behaviors are recalled (method of converging evidence) |
| schema | real world knowledge that helps one interpret, organize, and retrieve info that is relevant to real world knowledge |
| schemata importance | they help us interpret persons and situations, and what we can expect from them |
| Default Values | once a schema is activated, it will lead one to remember info consistent with the expectations engendered by the schema (tend to "fill-in" our memory) |
| Brewer's "Room" Study | participants were asked to recall what was in a doctor's office just after they waited in it. default values caused some to remember things things not there but consistent with their doctor office schema |
| "Carol Harris" Study | (Sulin & Dooling) participant's memories filled in information about Helen Keller when recalling a passage read about her |
| "Betty K" Study | (Snyder & Uranowitz) default values had participants think they remembered reading information that was not there based on the sexuality of the character of the reading |
| Loftus "Eyewitness Testimony" Study | participants recalled different details when asked about a car accident based on the way the questions were phrased (bumped, smashed) |
| "El Paso" Study | participants recalled reading the character in a story was a Hispanic gangster even though neither fact was mentioned. default values had participants recall stereotypes based on other lines read |
| stereotypes | beliefs about the personal attributes shared by people in a particular group of society |
| prejudice | a feeling (usually negative) toward a group or single individual based mainly on the person's group membership |
| ethnocentrism | the belief that the ingroup is superior to all outgroups |
| The Midwestern Juror Study | jurors racial prejudices influenced their decisions and a black defendant was viewed as more guilty (Especially when the evidence was Marginal) |
| discrimination | the behavioral component of group antagonism |
| LaPiere Chinese Discrimination Study | when asking hotels and restaurants if asians were welcome 92% said no, but they arrived they were welcomed and provided service (discrimination different than prejudice!) |
| Realistic Conflict Theory | prejudice and discrimination are due to competition between groups for over valued, but limited, resources |
| Cotton to Lynchings Study | (Hovland & Sears) research concluded that the more negative the economic conditions, the greater the amount of lynchings (Realistic Conflict Theory - under adverse conditions, competition for resources increased) |
| "Robber's Cave" Study | (Sherif) recreated Hovland & Sears findings in a controlled experiment using a boys summer camp |
| superordinate goal | through working together for a common goal, the conflict and animosity between groups disappears |
| Social Categorization Theory | people have a tendency to divide the world into two distinct categories - the Ingroup and Outgroup |
| Ingroup and Outgroup | ingroup members are considered to be more variable while outgroup members are more homogeneous |
| Linville Ingroup/Outgroup Study | members of the ingroup rated outgroup members as more homogeneous ("they all seem alike") while they rated ingroup members as more variable |
| Gender Stereotypes | beliefs about the personal attributes of men and woman |
| Morgan "Television" Study | found that the more t.v. adolescent girls watches, the more traditional their sex-role stereotypes were |
| Jennings, Geis, & Brown "Commercial" Study | woman who watched traditional commercials conformed more and showed less self confidence. woman who watched gender reversed commercials showed greater self confidence |
| priming | calling conscious awareness to a specific schema |
| Condry & Condry "Baby" Study | an ambiguously dressed baby was rated as more active and forceful when believed to be a boy and more timid when believed to be a girl |
| salience | the amount a specific group stands out with prominent features in public |
| "Salience" Study | group composition highlighted the solo's gender and fostered stereotyped perceptions (stereotyped when made salient) |
| Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Study | (Skrypnek & Snyder)found when others expect us to act in stereotypic ways, their expectation may lead us to behave in stereotypic ways |
| social influence | the process by which the people around us influence our thoughts, feelings and behaviors |
| social norms | widely accepted ideas / rules about how people should behave in certain situations |
| conformity | the situation in which people change their behavior in order to bring it into accord with social norms |
| compliance | efforts to alter a person's behavior by direct requests |
| obedience | issuing direct orders for others to change their behavior in specific ways |
| informational conformity | depends on two factors 1) how well informed we believe the group is 2) how confident we are in our own judgement |
| normative infuence conformity | brought on by the desire to be liked |
| Homan's Study | showed that the group would give physical punishment to those who went against the group |
| Autism | a retardation that disrupts those affected to work socially with others. these problems stem from 1) communication 2) socialization 3) imagination |
| Without Theory of Mind | we'd be like animals because of the inability to infer others perceptions or share our perceptions with others |
| explicit attitudes | attitudes that are conscious and reportable to us |
| implicit attitudes | attitudes that are uncontrollable and perhaps not consciously accessible to us |
| prevention focused goals | goals concerned about avoiding losses |
| promotion focused goals | goals concerned with not missing an opportunity to benefit |
| social learning | situations in which we establish views from our interactions with or observations of others |
| subliminal conditioning | classical conditioning that occurs in the absence of conscious awareness of the stimuli involved |
| instrumental conditioning | the process of rewards and punishments tied to our attitude and actions |
| observational learning | the acquiring of attitudes or behaviors merely by observation of others |
| social comparison | our tendency to compare ourselves with others to determine whether our view of social reality is correct |
| pluralistic ignorance | where we erroneously believe others have different attitudes then ourselves |
| theory of reasoned action | the notion that the decision to engage in a particular behavior is the result of a rational process |
| systemic processing | careful consideration (that requires effort) of message content and the ideas it contains |
| heuristic processing | uses simple rules or mental-shortcuts (requires less effort) to react in an automatic manner |
| elaboration-likelihood model | we engage in effortful and systemic processing when our motivation and capacity to process info to the persuasive message is high |
| reactance | a negative reaction to efforts by others to reduce our freedom by getting us to believe or do what they want |
| selective avoidance | the tendency to direct our attention away from information that challenges our existing attitudes |
| cognitive dissonance | an unpleasant state that occurs when our various attitudes and behavior are inconsistent with each other |
| less-leads-to-more-effect | less reasons or rewards for an action often leads to greater attitude change |
| risk averse | to weigh possible losses more heavily than equivalent potential gains |
| tokenism | a situation in which only a few members of a previously excluded group are admitted |
| singlism | the negative stereotyping and discrimination of people who are single |
| collective guilt | an emotional response when we are confronted with the wrongdoings of members of our owngroup |
| Asch Conformity Study | discovered that to produce the most conformity the optimal group size is 3 or 4 |
| Milgram Experiment | like Asch, it studied conformity. By increasing the # of confederates in an experiment an increasing amount of people conformed |
| Wilder Study | discovered it is the # of independent groups expressing an opinion, not the # of persons in a group that influence conformity |
| group unanimity | a person faced with a unanimous group feels great pressure to conform but if even a single group member dissents, conformity drops drastically |
| Allen & Levine Study | discovered that it does not matter whether a dissenter agrees with the subject or is perceived by the subject as being competent, conformity decreased as long as there is a dissenter |
| Timing of Dissent | when dissent comes before the majority's opinion, conformity decreases even more than if it were expressed after the majority's opinion |
| Minority Influence | a forceful minority can exert powerful influences on majority opinion |
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