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Volcano a fissure in the earth's crust (or in the surface of some other planet) through which molten lava and gases erupt Tephra bits of rock or solidified lava dropped from the air Lava magma that reaches Earth's surface Magma molten rock in the earth's crust Magma Chamber the pocket beneath a volcano where magma collects Pipe a long tube through which magma moves from the magma chamber to Earth's surface Vent a fissure in the earth's crust (or in the surface of some other planet) through which molten lava and gases erupt Crater a bowl shaped depression around one of the volcano's vent Caldera The large hole at the top of a volcano formed when the roof of a volcano's magma chamber collapses. Convergent Boundary a plate boundary where two plates move toward each other Divergent Boundary a plate boundary where two plates move away from each other Hot Spot unusually hot region of the mantle which causes rock to melt, rise, and form a volcano Cinder Cone Volcano a volcano built of cinders and other pyroclastics piled up around the volcanic vent, volcano made mostly of cinders and other rock particles that have been blown into the air Composite Volcano (Stratovolcano) A steep-sided volcano formed by an alternating series of lava flows and tephra Shield Volcano A low, flat, gently sloping volcano built from many flows of fluid, low-viscosity basaltic lava Active Volcano One that is erupting or shows signs that it may erupt in the near future. Dormant Volcano a volcano expected to awaken in the future and become active Granitic Magma magma rich in silica and low in magnesium and iron, light colored and low density Basaltic Magma Type of magma with a low silica content. Andesitic Magma Type of magma with a high amount of silica content. Geologic Time the succession eras, periods, and epochs as considered in historical geology Era a major division of geologic time composed of a number of periods Precambrian Era 4.6 billion - 544 million years ago 1st era Paleozoic Era 544 million - 248 million years ago 2nd era Mesozoic Era 248 million - 65 million years ago 3rd era Cenozoic Era 65 million years ago - today 4th and present era Atmosphere the envelope of gases surrounding any celestial body Troposphere the layer closest to Earth, where almost all weather occurs; the thinnest layer Mesosphere the layer of the atmosphere between the stratosphere and the thermosphere and in which temperature decreases as altitude increases Thermosphere 4th layer of atmosphere Exosphere the outermost atmospheric layer extending into outer space Ozone Layer a layer in the stratosphere (at approximately 20 miles) that contains a concentration of ozone sufficient to block most ultraviolet radiation from the sun Air Pressure The measure of the force with which air molecules push on a surface Greenhouse Gases Gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and ozone in the atmosphere which are involved in the greenhouse effect. Greenhouse Effect process by which atmospheric gases trap heat close to Earth's surface and prevent it from escaping into space Conduction the transfer of energy as heat through a material Convection the transfer of heat through a fluid (liquid or gas) caused by molecular motion Radiation energy that is radiated or transmitted in the form of rays or waves or particles Wind air moving (sometimes with considerable force) from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure Coriolis Effect The way Earth's rotation makes winds in the Northern Hemisphere curve to the right and winds in the Southern Hemisphere curve to the left due to its rotation on its axis Land Breeze movement of air from land to sea at night, created when cooler, denser air from the land forces up warmer air over the sea Sea Breeze movement of air from sea to land during the day when cooler air from above the water moves over the land, forcing the heated, less dense air above the land to rise Temperature a measure of how hot or cold something is Relative Humidity the ratio of the amount of water in the air at a give temperature to the maximum amount it could hold at that temperature Absolute Humidity the quantity of water vapor in a given amount of air at the current temperature Saturation To soak or fill to the point where no more can be absorbed. Thermometer an instrument for measuring temperature Barometer an instrument that measures atmospheric pressure Anemometer an instrument used to measure wind speed Psychrometer instrument used to measure relative humidity Precipitation water in any form falling to down to Earth Runoff water that flows over the ground surface rather than soaking into the ground Rain A form of precipitation. To have rain, the cloud temperature and the ground temperature must be above freezing Snow A form of precipitation. To have snow, the cloud temperature and the ground temperature must be below freezing Sleet A form of precipitation. To have sleet, the cloud temperature must be above freezing and the ground temperature must be below freezing Hail A form of precipitation. To have hail, the cloud temperature must be below freezing and the ground temperature must be above freezing Cloud forms when water vapor condenses on small particles of dust of smoke Air Mass A large body of air that has the same characteristics as the place it formed over High Pressure an air mass of higher than normal pressure Low Pressure an air mass of lower pressure Front the atmospheric phenomenon created at the boundary between two different air masses Cold Front forms when cold air moves under warm air which is less dense and pushes air up (produces thunderstorms heavy rain or snow Warm Front moving weather front along which a warm air mass slides over a cold air mass, producing stratiform clouds and precipitation Hurricane a severe tropical cyclone usually with heavy rains and winds moving a 75 mph or 119 km/h Tornado a localized and violently destructive windstorm occurring over land characterized by a funnel-shaped cloud extending toward the ground caused by severe thunderstorms Climate average, year-after-year conditions of temperature and precipitation in a particular region Rain Shadow an area that has little precipitation because some barrier causes the winds to lose their moisture before reaching it Leeward Side the side facing away from the wind. by the time the prevailing winds reach the top of the mountain, they have lost most of their mositure in the form of precipitation. relatively dry air moves down the leeward side of the mountain. Windward Side The side of a mountain range that faces oncoming winds. These winds push water vapor up the side of the mountain. When they condense, they create clouds which makes this side more of a wetter climate Latitude distance north or south of the Equator, measured in degrees Longitude distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, measured in degrees Altitude elevation especially above sea level or above the earth's surface El Niño The halting of the easterly winds blowing from North America to Asia. This causes ocean waters to warm up. Climate Change a long-term change in weather patterns in a given area Axis the center around which something rotates (Earth) Rotation the spinning of something on its axis (Earth) Revolution/Orbit the movement of an object around another object Solstice point or time at which the sun is farthest from the equator Equinox the two days of the year on which neither hemisphere is tilted toward or away from the sun Moon Phases The changing appearances of the Moon as seen from Earth New Moon moon phase that occurs when the Moon is between Earth and the Sun, at which point the Moon cannot be seen because its lighted half is facing the Sun and its dark side faces Earth Crescent Moon the phase of the moon in which only a curved edge of the moon's side that faced earth is illuminated Gibbous Moon when the size of the illuminated portion of the moon is greater than half but not a full moon Full Moon when the entire sunlit side of the moon faces earth; full moon is visible Waning pertaining to the period during which the visible surface of the moon decreases Waxing pertaining to the period during which the visible surface of the moon increases Solar Eclipse occurs when the Moon passes directly between the Sun and Earth and casts a shadow over part of Earth Lunar Eclipse the blocking of sunlight to the moon that occurs when Earth is directly between the sun and the moon Umbra a region of complete shadow resulting from total obstruction of light Penumbra a fringe region of partial shadow around an umbra Total Eclipse an eclipse as seen from a place where the eclipsed body is completely obscured Partial Eclipse an eclipse in which the eclipsed body is only partially obscured Nebula an immense cloud of gas and dust in interstellar space Gravity the force of attraction between all masses in the universe Nuclear Fusion the action or process of combining two atomic nuclei to produce a nucleus of greater mass Rocky Planets Planets that are closer to the Sun because of their greater mass not allowing them to be blown back by the Sun's explosion during its birth. (Earth, Venus, Mars, Mercury) Gas Planets Planets that are further away from the Sun because of their smaller mass allowing them to be blown away by the Sun's explosion during its birth. (Neptune, Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn) Main Sequence a diagonal area on an H-R diagram that includes more than 90 percent of all stars Red Giant A star that expands and cools once it runs out of hydrogen fuel White Dwarf the blue-white hot core of a star that is left behind after its outer layers have expanded and drifted out into space Black Hole final stage in the evolution of a very massive star, where the core's mass collapses to a point that its gravity is so strong that not even light can escape Galaxy a collection of star systems Spiral Galaxy a galaxy having a spiral structure; consists of middle-aged stars Elliptical Galaxy a galaxy shaped like a round or flattened ball, generally containing only old stars Irregular Galaxy a galaxy that does not fit into any other category; one with an irregular shape; consists of new stars