Flashcards: LSAT
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Piggy_Claus on August 6, 2010
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Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Family 1: Prove- question types | Stimulus--->Answer Choices 1. Must be true 2. Main point 3. Point at issue 4. Method of reasoning 5. Flaw in reasoning 6. Parallel reasoning |
| Family 1: Prove- question stems/answer | "the info above, if true" 1. accept stimulus info, even if it contains a flaw in reasoning, and use it to prove one answer must be true. 2. Any info in an answer choice that does not appear directly in stimulus, will be incorrect. |
| Family 2: help- question types | answer choices--->stimulus 1. Assumption 2. justify the conclusion 3. strengthens/supports 4. resolve the paradox |
| Family 2:help- question stems/answer | "Which one of the following, if true" 1. the info in the stimulus is suspect. - often reasoning errors present. 2. answer choices are accepted as given even if they include "new" information. - task is to determine which answer choice best meets question posed in the stem. |
| Family 3: Hurt- question types | answer choice-+--> stimulus 1. Weaken 2. Attack author's argument 3. instead of helping argument like family 2, you hurt it 4. same rules as family 2 |
| Family 3: Hurt- questions stems/answer | 1. info in stimulus is suspect- reasoning errors present 2. answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include "new" info.- Task is to determine which answer choice best attacks the argument in stimulus. |
| Family 4: disprove- question types | stimulus--+-->answer choices 1. Cannot be true |
| Family 4: disprove- question stems | 1. accept the stimulus info- even if it contains a flaw in reasoning- and use it to prove an answer choice cannot occur |
| Family 4: disprove- answer choices | 1. if an answer choice contains info that does not appear directly in the stimulus or as a result of the combo of items in the stimulus, then that answer could be true and is incorrect. 2. the correct answer will DIRECTLY disagree with the stimulus or consequence of the stimulus. |
| Stimuli that do not contain conclusions | Cannot be true Must be true Resolve the paradox |
| Premise indicators | AS indicated by Because Due to For For example For the reason that Given that In that Owing to Since That can be seen from We know this by |
| Additional premise indicators | After all Besides Furthermore In addition Moreover What's more |
| Counter-premise indicators | Admittedly After all Although But Despite Even though However In contrast In spite of On the other hand Still Whereas Yet |
| Conclusion Indicators | Accordingly As a result Clearly Conclude that Consequently Follows that For this reason Hence Must be that Shows that So Therefore Thus |
| Most | Even though "most" appears in many stems- only one answer will meet that criteria |
| Weaken EXCEPT | answer could either strengthen or have NO impact. The 4 incorrect answers will all weaken. |
| Least | When "least" appears in question stems, you should treat it like "except". Example: Which one if true, least weakens the argument.- correct answer will not weaken. |
| Sufficient | Sufficient---->Necessary All Any Every If In order to People who When Whenever |
| Necessary | Sufficient---->necessary Must Only Only if Required Then |
| Necessary + negate | Except Unless Until Without - All above modify the necessary condition - Remaining term is negated and becomes sufficient |
| Numbers | Amount Count Quantity Sum Tally Total |
| Percentages | Fraction Incidence Likelihood Percent Probability Proportion Ratio Segment Share |
| Numbers/Percentages Misconceptions | 1. increasing/decreasing percentages automatically lead to increasing/decreasing numbers (think market share) 2. Increasing/decreasing numbers automatically leads to increasing/decreasing percentages 3. Large/small numbers=large/small percentages |
| Market Share | The portion of the market that a company controls. Can be measured either in term of revenues (sales) or units sold. - Total market share=100% |
| Numbers general rules | 1. If the stimulus contains percentage or proportion information only, avoid answers that contain hard numbers. 2. If the stimulus contains only numerical info, avoid answers that contain percentage or proportion info 3. If the stimulus contains both percentages and numerical info, any answer choice containing one or the other or BOTH may be true. |
| Increasing market share | 1. If the market shrinks and they maintain a constant size. 2. if they grow in an unchanging market |
| Numbers- weaken/strengthen questions | look carefully for info about the total amounts- does the argument make an assumption based on one of the misconceptions earlier? |
| Strengthen basics | Support the argument in any way possible. Any answer choice that strengthens the argument by 1-100% is correct |
| Strengthen stems | 1. The stem uses the word "strengthen" or a synonym (support/helps/most justifies). 2. The stem indicates that you should accept the answer choices, as true. |
| Strengthen stem examples | 1. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument. 2. Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the statement above. 3. Which one of the following, if true, does most to justify the conclusions above? 4. Each of the following, if true, supports the claim EXCEPT |
| How to strengthen an argument | 1. Identify the conclusion 2. Personalize the argument 3. Look for weaknesses in the argument- find the missing link between a premise and the conclusion 4. Arguments that contain analogies or use surveys rely upon the validity of those analogies and surveys. Answer choices that strengthen the analogy or survey, or establish their soundness, are usually correct. 5. The correct answer can strengthen the argument a little or a lot. |
| Incorrect strengthen answers | 1. opposite answers 2. shell game answers- usually used to support a conclusion similar to but slightly different from the one presented in the stimulus. 3. Out of scope answers- simply miss the point. |
| Causality and Strengthen Questions | 1. Eliminate any alternate causes for the stated effect 2. Show that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs 3. Show that when the cause does not occur, the effect does not occur. 4. Eliminate the possibility that the stated relationship is reversed. 5. Show that the data used to make the causal statement are accurate or eliminate possible problems with the data. |
| Justify the Conclusion basics | Asks you to strengthen the argument so powerfully that the conclusion is made logical. Compared to a strengthen question, the answer to a justify question must strengthen the conclusion so it is 100% proven. Logically speaking, the correct answer to a Justify the Conclusion question is SUFFICIENT to prove the conclusion when added to the premises |
| Why did the chicken cross the road? | Stop asking stupid questions. |
| What is the average velocity of an african swallow? | Trick Question: Laden or unladen? |
| Justify the Conclusion logic | Answer choice(correct)--->Conclusion(valid) |
| Justify the Conclusion stems | 1. The stem uses the word "if" or another sufficient indicator. 2. The stem uses the phrase, "allows the conclusion to be properly drawn" or "enables the conclusion to be properly drawn" 3. The stem does not lessen the degree of justification - most justifies or does the most to justify indicates a strengthen question. |
| Justify the conclusion stem examples | 1. The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed. 2. Which one of the following, if assumed, would allow the conclusion to be properly drawn. 3. Which one of the following, if true, enables the conclusion to be properly drawn. 4. Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the argument's conclusion to be properly inferred. 5. Which one of the following is an assumption that would serve to justify the conclusion above. 6. The environmentalist's conclusion would be properly drawn if it were true that the 7. Te conclusion above is properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed. |
| Justify the Conclusion stimuli | Most use either Conditional Reasoning or contain numbers and percentages. |
| Solving Justify the Conclusion Mechanistically | 1. Any "new" element in the conclusion will appear in the correct answer 2. Elements that are common to the conclusion and at least one premise normally do not appear in the correct answer. 3. Elements that appear in the premises but not the conclusion usually appear in the correct answer |
| Assumption basics | assumption questions ask you to identify a statement that the argument assumes or supposes. An assumption is simply an unstated premise- what must be in true in order for the argument to be true. An assumption can therefore be defined as something that is necessary for the argument to be true. |
| Assumption stems | 1. The stem uses the word "assumption," "presupposition," or some other variation. 2. The stem NEVER contains the word "if" or any other sufficient condition indicator. |
| Assumption logic | Conclusion (valid) ----> Answer choice (true) |
| Assumption question Stems examples | 1. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument above. 2. Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the argument depends. 3. The argument assumes which one of the following 4. the conclusion in the passage above relies on which one of the following assumptions? 5. The position taken above presupposes which one of the following? 6. The conclusion cited does not follow unless? |
| Supporter Assumption | a linking statement- links 2 premises or links a premise to a conclusion. - appears similar to the justify the conclusion answers- often connect "new" or "rogue" pieces of info. |
| Defender Role for Assumption | protects the argument by eliminating ideas or assertions that could weaken the argument. |
| Assumption negation technique | used to decide between contenders. 1. logically negate the answer choices under consideration. 2. The negated answer choice that attacks the argument will be the correct answer. Conclusion (valid) ---> Assumption (true) Assumption (not true) ----> Conclusion (not valid) |
| Assumption answer choices | 1. Watch for "at least one" or "at least some". These are typically correct. 2. Avoid answers that claim an idea was the most important consideration- they are incorrect. Examples: "top priority," "primary purpose," "the main factor." - these claim very important but not necessarily the most important idea. 3. Watch for the use of "not" or negatives in assumption choices- Commonly seen in defender answer choices. |
| Assumptions and Conditionality | 1. If conditional statements are linked together in an argument, the correct answer will provide the missing link to the conclusion or the contrapositive. 2. If no conditional chains are present and only a conditional conclusion exists- the correct answer will usually deny scenarios where the sufficient condition occurs and the necessary does not--- DEFENDER role. |
| Assumptions and causality | 1. eliminates an alternate cause for the stated effect 2. shows that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs 3. shows that when the cause doesn't occur, the effect does not occur. 4. eliminates the possibility that the stated relationship is reversed 5. Shows that the data used to make the causal statement are accurate, or eliminates possible problems with the data. |
| Resolve the paradox stimuli peculiarities | 1. No conclusion 2. Language of contradiction a. but b. however c. yet d. although e. paradoxically f. surprisingly |
| Resolve the paradox question stems | 1. An indication that the answer choices should be accepted as true. 2. Key words that indicate your task is to resolve a problem. Action: resolve, explain, reconcile Problem: paradox, discrepancy, contradiction, conflict, puzzle |
| Resolve the paradox question stem examples | 1. Which one of the following, if true, would most effectively resolve the apparent paradox above? 2. which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the puzzling facts cited above? |
| Resolve the paradox: active resolution | The correct answer will actively resolve the paradox- it will allow both sides to be factually correct and it will either 1. explain how the situation came into being or 2. add a piece of into that shows how the two ideas or occurrences can coexist. Not seeking to disprove one side. |
| Resolve the paradox incorrect answers | 1. explains only one side of the paradox- must show how both sides can coexist. 2. Similarities and differences a. If the stimulus contains a paradox where 2 items are different, then an answer choice that explains why the two are similar cannot be correct. b. vice versa c. in short- a similarity cannot be used to explain a difference and a difference cannot explain a similarity. 3. Must address the facts of the situation- many answers will have reasonable solutions that do not quite meet the stated facts. |
| Weaken question basics | answer chocies ----+---> stimulus 1. Stimulus will contain an argument and conclusion- need to understand the structure of the argument 2. Focus on the conclusion. Almost all correct weaken answer choices impact the conclusion 3. the info presented in the stimulus is suspect. there are often reasoning errors present, and you must read the argument carefully. 4. Weaken questions often yield strong prephrases. 5. Answer choices are accepted as given, even if they have "new" info. |
| Weaken stems | 1. Stem uses word "weaken" or a synonym. weaken, attack, undermine, refute, argue against, call into question, cast doubt, challenge, damage, counter. 2. The stem indicates you should accept the answer choices as true: "which one of the following, if true" |
| How to weaken an argument | 1. attack the conclusion! 2. The premises- in practice, almost all correct LSAT weaken question answer leave the premises untouched. 3. The conclusion- will most likely be attacked. - the correct answer will not simply contradict the conclusion but undermine it. - Show that the conclusion fails to account for some element or possibility. - will attack assumptions look for the answer that attacks the way the author arrived at the conclusion. |
| Common Weakening Scenarios | 1. incomplete information- the author fails to consider all of the possibilities, or relies upon evidence that is incomplete. Can be attacked by bringing up new possibilities or info. 2. Improper Comparison- the author attempts to compare two or more items that are essentially different. 3. qualified conclusion. - the author qualifies or limis the conclusion in such a way as to leave the argument open to attack. |
| Weakening incorrect answers | 1. opposite answers. 2. shell game- attacks a conclusion that is similar to, but slightly different from the one presented in the stimulus. 3. out of scope answers |
| Weakening conditional reasoning | Attack the necessary condition by showing that the necessary condition does not need to occur in order for the sufficient condition to occur. 1. present counterexample 2. present info that shows that the sufficient condition can occur without the necessary condition. |
| Cause and Effect in Weakening questions | 1. find alternate cause for effect 2. show when cause occurs, effect does not 3. when when effect occurs, the cause does not 4. show relationship is reversed 5. show a statistical problem exists with data used to make the causal statement. |
| Must be true basics | stimulus ----> answer choices - stimulus does NOT contain a conclusion - select an answer choice that is proven by the information presented in the stimulus. - can be a paraphrase of part of the stimulus or it can be a logical consequence of one or more parts of the stimulus. - can always be proven by referring the facts stated in the stimulus |
| Must be True: stems | 1. often indicates the information in the stimulus should be taken as true: "if the statements above are true" "if the information above is correct" 2. Asks you to identify a single answer choice that is proven or supported, as in: a. "which one of the following must also be true" b. "Which one of the following conclusions can be properly drawn on the basis of it" c. "most strongly support which one of the following" d. "Which one of the following can be properly inferred." |
| Must be True: answers | 1. paraphrased answers 2. answers that are the sum of two or more stimulus statements |
| Must be true: incorrect answers | 1. could be true or likely to be true 2. exaggerated answers- look for changes in quantity (some/all) and probability (likely/will). 3. New information- examine scope of argument to make sure the "new" information does not fall within the sphere of a term or concept in the stimulus and examine the answers to make sure it is not the combination of stimulus elements. 4. Shell game 5. opposite answers 6. reverse answers- check that quantity/probability are consistent. |
| Main point basics | stimulus ----> answer Requests you to identify conclusion or point of argument - fill in the blank questions are main point questions in disguise. |
| Main point incorrect answers | 1. answers that are true but do not encapsulate the author's point. 2. answer that repeat the premises of the argument. |
| Point at Issue: Basics | Group 1: Stimulus ----> Answer choices Comprised of two speakers who disagree about an issue that is generally ethical or decision-oriented in nature, not factual. Variation of must be true question |
| PAI Question Stem examples | "which one of the following most accurately expresses the point at issue between Tom and Mary?" Which one of the following most accurately represents what is at issue between Jorge and Ruth?" "On the basis of their statement, Logan and Mendez are committed to disagreeing over whether?" |
| PAI Question stem | 1. The question stem directs you to choose the answer that describes the point of disagreement between the 2 speakers or 2. Identify the statement that the two speakers would disagree. |
| PAI incorrect answers | 1. Ethical versus Factual Situations. - when the issue is ethical, the correct answer cannot be factual. 2. Dual agreement or Dual Disagreement- incorrect answers will supply statements that both speakers will agree with. 3. The view of one speaker is unknown- the correct answer must contain a point of disagreement- these "one unknown" answers are always incorrect since there is no way to determine that the other speaker disagrees. |
| Agree/Disagree test | The correct answer must produce responses where one speaker would say "I agree, the statement is correct," and the other speaker would say, "I disagree, that statement is incorrect." |
| Method of Reasoning | Stimulus--->Answer choices - abstract must be true questions -identify logical organization of the argument |
| Method of Reasoning- basics | 1. You can only use the information in the stimulus to prove the correct answer choice. 2. Any answer choice that describes an element or a situation that does not occur in the stimulus is incorrect. |
| Method of Reasoning- question stem examples | 1. "the method of the argument is to" 2. "The argument proceeds by" 3. "Which one of hte following describes the technique of reasoning used above" 4. "which one of the following is an argumentative strategy employed in the argument" 5. The argument employs which one of the following reasoning techniques?" 6. "Aiesha responds to Adam's argument by" |
| Method of Reasoning- basics | 1. The stimulus will contain an argument that can either valid or invalid reasoning. 2. Watch for the use of premise and conclusion indicators- help identify structure of the argument 3. Use fact test to eliminate wrong answers- answers describing an event that didn't occur in stimulus |
| Method of reasoning- fact test | - similar to must be true questions. - If an answer choice describes an event that did not occur in the stimulus, then that answer is incorrect. - watch out for answers that are partially true- that is answers that contain a description of something that happened in the argument but also contains additional things that did not occur. |
| Method of Reasoning- Incorrect Answers | 1. "new" element answers 2. Half right/half wrong answers 3. exaggerated answers 4. the opposite answer 5. the reverse answer |
| Method of Reasoning-Argument Part | The question stem cites a specific portion of the stimulus and then asks you to identify the role the cited portion plays in the structure of the argument. |
| MOR- AP- stimulus structure | - stimuli tend to be more complex - Some feature 2 conclusions (main is the 1st or 2nd sentence, subsidiary conclusion- last sentence much of the time and often preceded by conclusion indicator. - includes 2 different viewpoints or the use of counter premises. -if no main conclusion at the end of a method-AP problem, be prepared to answer a question about a part of the argument other than the conclusion. |
| Flaw in Reasoning | Stimulus--->answer choices Same as Method of reasoning- just contains a flaw. - correct answer will identify the error in the author's reasoning and then describe that error in general terms. -beware of answers that describe a portion of the stimulus but fail to identify the flaw in reasoning. |
| FiR- uncertain use of a term or concept | As an argument progresses, the author must use each term in a constant, coherent fashion. Using a term in different ways is inherently confusing and undermines the integrity of the argument. (eg. using "value" in two different senses) |
| FiR- Source argument | argument attacks the person (or source) instead of the argument they advance. - LSAT is concerned solely with argument forms, a speaker can never validly attack the character or motives of a person - a speaker must always attack the ARGUMENT advanced by a person. 1. focusing on the motives of the source 2. focusing on the actions of the source example: "The anti-smoking views expressed by Senator Smith should be ignored. After all, smith himself is a smoker" |
| FiR- Circular Reasoning | The author assumes as true what is supposed to be proved. (eg. this essay is the best because it is better than all of the others) |
| FiR- circular reasoning question stem examples | 1. It assumes what it seeks to establish 2. argues circularly by assuming the conclusion is true in stating the premises. 3. presupposes the truth of what it sets out to prove 4. the argument assumes what it attempting to demonstrate 5. it takes for granted the very claim that it sets out to establish 6. it offers, in place of support for its conclusion, a mere restatement of that conclusion |
| Errors of conditional reasoning | Mistaken negation or Mistaken reversal. "taking the nonexistence for something as evidence that a necessary precondition for that thing also did not exist" if A-->B, then they use not A--> not B (mistaken negation) "mistakes being sufficient to justify punishment for being required to justify it" (mistaken reversal) B--->A |
| Errors- confuses a necessary condition for a sufficient condition | "It treats something that is necessary for bringing about a state of affairs as something that is sufficient to bring about a state of affairs" "from the assertion that something is necessary to a moral order, the argument concludes that that thing is sufficient for an element of a moral order to be realized." |
| Errors-confuses a sufficient condition for a necessary condition | "confuses a sufficient condition with a required condition" |
| Errors-conditional reasoning | sufficient (assured) and necessary (required) are used frequently when describing conditional reasoning. - should quickly scan answers that contain "sufficient," "necessary," or both. |
| Errors- Mistaken Cause and Effect 1. sequence of events | Assuming a causal relationship on the basis of the sequence of events. - "mistakes a temporal relationship for a causal relationship" "mistakes the observation that one thing happens after another for proof that the second thing is the result of the first" |
| Errors- Mistaken Cause and Effect 2. only a correlation exists | Assuming a causal relationship when only a correlation exists. "confusing the coincidence of two events with a causal relation between the two" "assumes a causal relationship where only a correlation has been indicated" |
| Errors- Mistaken Cause and Effect 3. Failure to consider alternate causes | Failure to consider an alternate cause for the effect, or an alternate cause for both the cause and the effect "fails to exclude an alternative explanation for the observed effect" "overlooks the possibility that the same thing may causally contribute to both" |
| Errors- Mistaken Cause and Effect- 4. events might be reversed | Failure to consider that the events may be reversed "the author mistakes an effect for a cause" |
| Errors- Straw Man | An author attempts to attack an opponent's position by ignoring the actual statements made be the opposing speaker and instead DISTORTS and REFASHIONS the argument, making it weaker in the process. often accompanied by "what you're saying is" or "if I understand you correctly" |
| Errors- straw man- answer choices | 1. refutes a distorted version of an opposing position 2. misdescribing the student representative's position, thereby making it easier to challenge. 3. portrays opponents' views as more extreme than they really are. 4. distorts the proposal advocated by opponents. |
| Errors- general lack of relevant evidence | Authors misuse info to such a degree that they fail to provide any info to support their conclusion. "the author cites irrelevant data" "draw a conclusion that is broader in scope that is warranted by the evidence advanced" |
| Errors- internal contradiction | Occurs when he author makes conflicting statements. "bases a conclusion on claims that are inconsistent with each other" "the author makes incompatible assumptions" |
| Errors- appeal fallacies | 1. appeal to authority 2. Appeal to popular opinion/appeal to numbers 3. appeal to emotion |
| Errors- appeal to authority | uses the opinion of an authority in an attempt to persuade the reader. However, the authority may not have relevant knowledge or all of the information regarding the situation |
| Errors- appeal to popular opinion/appeal to numbers. | This error states that a position is true because the majority believe it be true. "attempts to discredit legislation by appealing to public sentiment" "it treats popular opinion s if it constituted conclusive evidence for a claim" |
| Errors- appeal to emotion | When emotions or emotionally-charged language is used in an attempt to persuade the reader. "attempts to persuade by making an emotional appeal" "uses emotive language in labeling the proposals" "the argument appeals to emotion rather than reason" |
| Errors- survey errors | 1. The survey uses a biased sample (eg. literary digest republican survey on next president) 2. questions are improperly constructed- confusing or misleading 3. Respondents to a survey give inaccurate responses (weight/salary) |
| Errors-exceptional case/overgeneralization | takes a small number of instances and treats those instances as if they support a broad, sweeping conclusion. - usually an INCORRECT answer " supports a universal claim on the basis of a single example" |
| Errors- composition and division | involve judgments made about groups and parts of a group. 1. an error in composition occurs when the author attributes a characteristic of part of the group to the group as a whole or to each member of the group. (every party I attend is fun and exciting so my life is fun and exciting) 2. an error in division occurs when the author attributes a characteristic of the whole (or each member of the whole) to a part of the group. (eg, America is wealthy, so every American is wealthy) |
| Errors- False analogy | when the author uses an analogy that is too dissimilar to the original situation to be applicable. |
| Errors- false dilemma | assumes only two courses of action are available when there may be others. |
| Errors- use of evidence. | 1. Lack of evidence for a position to prove that position is false 2. Lack of evidence is taken to prove that position is true. 3. Some evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is false. (might weaken but not actually disprove it) "it confuses undermining an argument in support of a given conclusion with showing that the conclusion itself is false" 4. Some evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is true. (might be true instead of must be true). |
| Errors- time shift errors | assumes that conditions will remain constant over time, and what was the case in the past will be true in the present or future. |
| Errors- Numbers and percentages | improperly equating numbers with percentages |
| Parallel Reasoning | Stimulus ---> answer choices - can contain either valid or invalid reasoning - whenever a parallel reasoning question contains flawed reasoning, it is stated in the question stem. - If no mention of flawed reasoning- must be valid |
| Parallel reasoning- do not need to be paralleled | 1. topic of the stimulus 2. the order of the presentation of the premises and conclusion in the stimulus. |
| parallel reasoning | ... |