| Term | Definition |
|---|
| Meteorology | Study of weather and atmosphere |
| Weather | State of atmospheric conditions at a particular place for a short period of time |
| Climate | Average composite of atmospheric conditions for a given area over a long period of time |
| Temperature | A measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance |
| Humidity | A general term referring to water vapor in the air but not to liquid droplets of fog, cloud, or rain |
| Precipitation | Any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that is deposited on the earth's surface |
| Cloud | A form of condensation best described as a dense concentration of suspended water droplets or tiny ice crystals |
| Air Pressure | The force exerted by the weight of a column of air above a given point |
| Atmosphere composition | Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (.93%), Carbon Dioxide (.035%) |
| Water vapor | Has high heat capacity, and can absorb and release heat |
| Particulate Matter | Fine mineral dust, pollen, spores, sweeds, man-made pollution |
| Condensating Nuclei | Tiny bits of particulate matter that serve as surfaces on which water vapor condenses |
| Ozone | O3; acts as filter absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation from sun |
| Troposphere | Bottom layer of atmosphere; "weather sphere" |
| Tropopause | Boundary between underlying Troposphere and overlying Stratosphere |
| Stratosphere | Ozone concentrated in stratosphere, hence the reason for the temp. increase |
| Stratopause | Boundary between stratosphere and overlying thermosphere |
| Mesosphere | Temperatures decrease with increasing altitude |
| Mesopause | Boundary between mesosphere and thermosphere |
| Thermosphere | Contains only minute fraction of earth's atmospheric gases, very rarefied air, low pressure (temp increases with altitude) |
| Rotation | The earth rotates on its axis from west to east (counter clockwise), complete rotation of 360Degrees every 24 hours |
| Revolution | Earth revolves around the sun in a similar west to east rotation, once every 365 days |
| Speed of Rotation | Greatest at the equator and decreases to 0 at the poles |
| Plane of the Ecliptic | The plane that passes through the sun and earth, enscribing the orbital path of the earth around the sun |
| Axial Tilt | 23.5 Degrees |
| Insolation | (INcident SOLar radiATION) is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time |
| Angle of incedence | the angle between a ray incident on a surface and the line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence |
| Summer Solstice | (June 21) At solstice, all points lying north of the Article Circle are placed within the circle of illumination for 24 hours contiuously |
| Winter Solstice | (Dec. 21) All points lying south of the Anarctic Circle lay continually within the circle of illumination, whereas, points north of the Arctic circle lay within continual darkness |
| Spring Equinox | (March 20) The perpendicular rays of the sun strike the equator (day=night) |
| Fall Equinox | (Sept. 22) The perpendicular rays of the sun strike the equator (day=night) |
| Circle of Illumination | The great circle that separates daylight from darkness |
| Tropic of Cancer | 23.5 north latitude, marks the northernmost location reached by the vertical/direct rays of the sun in annual revoluation patters (occurs on the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere) |
| Tropic of Capricorn | 23.5 south latitude, markes the southernmost location reached by the vertical/direct rays of the sun in annual revolution pattern (occurs on Dec 21) |
| Electromagnetic Radiation | The sun emits EM Radiation; long waves= ifrared- felt as heat; short waves= ultraviolet- sunburn wavelengths |
| Conduction | Transfer of heat through matter by molecular activity (spoon left in hot pan) |
| Convection | Transfer of heat by the movement of mass from one place to another (takes place primarily in luquids and gases) |
| Radiation | Passage of radiant energy as wave energy (radiation from sun in vacuum of space) |
| Greenhouse Gas | Water vapor and CO2 allow shorter wavelength solar radiation to enter atmosphere, where it heats earth's surface inside, the earth's surface re-radiates longer wavelength terrestrial radiation, which is trapped by the water vapor and CO2, thus heating the air of the lower atmosphere |
| Continental heating | Land heats more rapidly and to higher temps than water, and cools more rapidly and to lower temps than water |
| Water Vapor | Most important gas in atmosphere; high heat capacity |
| Sublimination | Converting water vapor/gas directly to solid ice |
| Heat energy | Measured in calories |
| Calorie | Amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 grame of water 1 degree C |
| Latent Heat | The energy absorbed or released during a change in state |
| Humidity | Amount of water vapor in air |
| Specific Humidity | Amount of water vapor contained in unit of air (expressed as wt. of vapor/mass of air= gm/kg) |
| Relative Humidity | Ratio of air's water vapor content to its water vapor capacity at a given temperature |
| Vapor Saturation | Maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold |
| Saturation capacity | The maximum quantity of water vapor that the air can hold at any given temp and pressure |
| Temperature vs. Humidity | Decrease in air temp= increase in relative humidity; and an increase in air temp will result in decrease in relative humidity |
| Temperature vs. Air Volume | Increase in temp= increase in air volume; decrease in temp= decrease in air volume |
| Dew Point | Temperature at which air would have to be cooled in order to reach saturation |
| Cloud Droplets | Condensation on particulate matter/condensation nuclei; droplets form on millions of tiny particles |
| Adiabatic Heating | Warming of air caused when air is allowed to expand or is compressed, not because heat is added or subtracted |
| Adiabatic Cooling | Cooling of air caused when air is allowed to expand or is compressed, not because heat is added or subtracted |
| Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate | 10C/1000m altitude (i.e. cooles 10C for every 1000m rise in altitude)-- if you're below 100% R.H. |
| Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate | Temperature gradient of rising air after cloud formation begins (i.e. past dew point)-- 5C/1000m altitude |
| Stable Air | Temperature of rising (adiabatic) air mass < temperature of upper elevation air, air mass will tend to resist vertical motion |
| Unstable Air | Temperature of rising (adiabatic) air mass > temperature of upper elevation air, air mass will tend to rise vertically like a hot air balloon |
| Forceful Lifting | Air may be forced upward regardless of stability of stability of air mass or adiabatic processes |
| Convergent Lifting | Flowing of air masses together, occupies less space, air column forced to rise vertically |
| Orographic Lifting | Sloping terrain/mountain slopes act as barriers to air flow, forces air to ascend |
| Frontal Wedging | Cool air acts as a barrier over which warm, less dense air rises |
| Cloud Form | Condensated water vapor, comprised of aggregates of very small droplets of water or thin crystals of ice |
| Cirrus | High, white and thin (wispy) |
| Cumulus | Cotton ball masses |
| Stratus | Sheets or layers that cover much or all of the sky, no distinct individual cloud units |
| Rain Droplets | 1 million times more volume than cloud droplet |
| Sleet | Particles of ice produced by warm air over freezing air, rain falls from warm air through freezing... frozen rain drops |
| Glaze | Freezing rain; supercooled rain drops that become frozen upon impact with trees, branches and surfaces |
| Hail | Hard rounded pellets of ice |
| Fog | cloud with base at or very near ground, same general structure as cloud |
| Advection Fog | Warm, moist air blown over a cool surface |
| Radiation Fog | Forms by rapid cooling of earth's surface (common on very clear nights where surface heat escapes readily) |
| Evaporation Fog | Cool air moves over warm water, "steam" rises from water evaporation from water occurs, air above reaches saturation point |
| Air Pressure | Force exerted by the weight of the air above |
| Pressure | Force/Unit Area |
| Altitude vs. Air Pressure | Increase altitude= decreased pressure |
| Millibar | a unit of atmospheric pressure equal to one thousandth of a bar, unit of meausre for reporting atmospheric pressure |
| PSI | pounds per square inch |
| Barometer | Measures air pressure; tube/liquid mercury |
| Wind | Horizontal movement of air (advective motion) |
| Wind and Pressure | Air of higher pressure moves towards air of lower pressure |
| Pressure differential | Caused by unequal heating of atmosphere by sun; variable solar insolation due to tilt of the earth, orbital path, latitudinal changes |
| Pressure gradient | Degree of pressure chagnes per unit distance |
| Coriolis Effect | Apparent shift due to rotation; earth rotating in counterclockwise direction as viewed from north pole |
| N. Hemisphere- hook right | Air deflected to right in the direction of travel |
| S. Hemisphere- hook left | Air deflected to left in direction of travel |
| Wind Speed | Controlled by: Coriolis effect, pressure-gradient force, and friction |
| Altitude vs. Temp Variation | Tropo- colder, Strato- warmer, Meso-colder, Thermo-warmer |
| Air Pressure at Sea Level | 1000 milibars (1 kg/sq. cm) |
| Altitude vs. Pressure Variation | Higher altitude= lower pressure |
| Earth-Sun Relation | The earth's dependence on the sun for solar energy is essential for all life; drives biosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere |
| Infrared radiation | Long waves: can't be seen, but felt as light |
| Ultraviolet Radiation | Short waves: sunburn wavelengths |
| Visible Light | ROYGBIV |
| fog | dew-point at ground temperature |
| dew | As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat, atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that of which it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of water droplets. |
| nimbostratus | a cloud of the class characterized by a formless layer that is almost uniformly dark gray |
| Cumulonimbus | a type of cloud that is tall, dense, and involved in thunderstorms and other intense weather. |
| Cloud Base | the lowest altitude of the visible portion of the cloud. |
| Rising barometer | high pressure system approaching, clearing weather |
| Falling barometer | low pressure system approaching, coulds and rain |
| Isobar | A line drawn on a map connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure, usually corrected to sea level. |
| Turbulence | The mixing of warm and cold air in the atmosphere by wind. |
| Jet Stream | Swift, high altitude winds. |
| Upper level air | (high altitude) airflow parallel to isobars |
| Lower level air | Air flow winds cross isobars at an acute angle |
| cyclone | NH- low pressure center' winds blow inward and counterclockwise around the low/ SH- winds blow inward and clockwise |
| anticyclone | NH- High pressure center; winds blow outward and clockwise around the high/ SH- winds blow outward and counterclockwise |
| general circulation | Warm air rises from equator and circulates symmetrically to north and south pole; cold air sinking at the poles, circulated back to equator for reheating/circulation |
| Hadley Cell | a circulation pattern that dominates the tropical atmosphere, with rising motion near the equator, poleward flow 10-15 kilometers above the surface, descending motion in the subtropics, and equatorward flow near the surface. This circulation is intimately related to the trade winds, tropical rainbelts, subtropical deserts and the jet streams |
| Equatorial Low | Low pressure Zone at Equator; Abundant Precipitation/Tropical Climates |
| Subtropical High | Zone of subsiding, adiabatically warming air at 30 N and S latitudes; World Deserts in this belt |
| Mid-latitude Westerlies | North and South of 30 degrees N and S Latitudes; remainder of diverging, subsiding air (in Hadley cell) forced north and south respectively |
| Polar High | At poles: high pressure; cold subsiding dry air forced equatorward |
| Deserts vs. latitude | Deserts are found at subtropical highs |
| Rain Forests vs. latitude | Rain forests are found at Equatorial Lows |
| Trade Winds | Reliable steady winds |
| Air Mass | Immense body of air, characterized by homogeneity of temperature and moisture at any given altitude |
| Weather Front | Boundary between two adjoining air masses having contrasting characteristics |
| Source Regions | Area of earth's surface over which air masses assume their distinguishing characteristics |
| Polar air masses | Originate in high latitudes; cold air mass temps. |
| Tropical air masses | Originate in low latitudes; warm air mass temps. |
| Continental air masses | On the dry side; land source |
| Maritime air masses | On the wet side; ocean/water source |
| Continental Polar | On dry and cold side |
| Continental Tropical | On dry and warm side |
| Maritime Polar | On wet and cold side |
| Maritime Tropical | On wet and warm side |
| Warm Fronts | Warm air moves over wedge of cold air; Average slope- 1:200 |
| Cold Fronts | Cold air moves into region of warm air; Average slope 1:100 |
| Occluded Fronts | Cold front overtakes a warm front; wedging of warm air aloft between two cold air masses |
| Weather vs. frontal position | Warm Front= several hours of gentle precipitation over large region; Cold Front= Produce more violent weather (sudden downpours, wind gusts) |
| Mid-Latitude wave cyclones | Refers to a low pressure system comprised of cold and warm air, with the front commonly bending into a swirling low pressure system. |
| Lake-effect | Snow showers associated with a cP air mass to which moisture and heat are added from below as the air mass traverses a large and relatively warm lake (such as one of the Great Lakes), rendering the air mass humid and unstable. |
| Thunderstorms | Lightening, thunder, localized intense rain fall, high energy events; associated with cumulonimbus |
| Lightening | Cloud discharge of electricity |
| Thunder | Lightening-- rapid heating of air upon passage-- violent expansion of superheated air (explosive air expansion) |
| Voltage Discharge | Charge buildup until discharge; rapid multiple strokes of electrical charge from cloud to ground or could to cloud |
| Tornado | Violent wind storm emanating from a funnel-shaped spiraling column of air; rapid convergence of air to low pressure center; tied to cumulonimbus cloud, form in association with thunderstorms |
| Funnel Cloud | a funnel-shaped cloud of condensed water droplets, associated with a rotating column of air and extending from the base of a cloud (usually a cumulonimbus or towering cumulus cloud) but not reaching the ground or a water surface. |
| Hurricanes | Whirling tropical cyclones with wind speeds up to 185 mph |
| Tropical Cyclone | a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain, which form almost exclusively in tropical regions of the globe, and their formation in Maritime Tropical air masses. |
| Storm surge | The abnormal rise of the sea along a shor as a result of strong winds |
| Thermal infrared radiation | The greenhouse process absorbs this heat reflected by Earth's surface and atmosphere |
| Carbon Loading | Exceeds uptake of carbon dioxide by atmosphere and oceans; >carbon dioxide concentrations; 6.5 x 10^15g carbon/year |
| Industrial age | Rapid increase in concentration of Greenhouse gases since this period (1800s) |
| Pre-industrial age | CO2= 280 ppm |
| Post-industrial age | CO2= 364 ppm |
| Methane | Sources: fossil fuels, agriculture, landfills; |
| Ice core | a sample from the accumulation of snow and ice over many years that have re-crystallized and have trapped air bubbles from previous time periods |
| Ice-gas bubbles | Carbon dioxide records... show climactic changes throughout the years |
| Climate Proxy | Create temperature records: tree rings, ice sheets, ice caps, glaciers |
| Anthropogenic emissions | Paleoclimate data suggests there is natural variation of greenhouse gases, ouside the influence of this. |
| Historic surface temperature | Increase of 0.3 to 0.6 degress C over the past 150 years |
| Paleoclimatology | The study of climate change taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth |
| Results of global warming | Glacial melting, sea level rise, sea level expansion, > storm activity, increased flooding, shifting ecosystems, increased evaporation |
| Stable isotopes | Isotopes of elements that do not undergo radioactive decay; provide basis for understanding of past climates (atmospheric conditions, oceanic conditions) |
| Oxygen isotopes | O16 and O18 (show past water temps, ice-sheet sizes, and salinity variations over time) |
| Carbon isotopes | C12 and C13 (water circulation patterns, nutrient levels, atmospheric CO2 concentrations) |
| Radioactive isotope | Natural or artificially created isotope of a chemical element having an unstable nucleus that decays, emitting alpha, beta, or gamma rays until stability is reached |
| O16 | 8 p+, 8 e-, 8 n; most abundant isotope; 99.8% of oxygen in ocean system |
| O18 | 8 p+, 8 e-, 10 n; minimal component of ocean system; 0.2% of oxygen in system |
| Superposition | Sediments accumulate over time on the seafloor; oldest layer on bottom, youngest layer on top |
| Biogenic | Sediment originating from a living organism |
| Lithogenic | Sediment originating from rocks |
| Stratigraphy | A branch of geology, studies rock layers and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks |
| Paleothermometry | Measurement or estimation of past temperatures |
| CaCO3 | Calcium Carbonate |
| Mollusks, Foraminifera, Coral | Organism shells are composed of CaCO3 which is biogenically precipitated in the ocean water environment |
| Heavy Water | H2O18= resistant to evaporation |
| Light Water | H2016= easily evaporated |
| Latitude vs. O18 | Low latitudes= warm temp= > evaporation; tropical seawater enriched in O18 |
| Salinity vs. O18 | Greater levels of O18= greater salinity |
| Glacial Climate | Build-up of ice sheets, removal of water from ocean; O16 is easily evaporated and stored in ice sheets |
| Interglacial Climate | Melting of ice sheets, release of water from storage to ocean; O16 is released back to ocean |
| Late Wisconsinan Ice | Last Glacial Episode; maximum ice build-up at ~20,000 years ago; sea level ~120 m lowever than present |
| Global correlation | Replication of patterns from multiple drilling sides around the globe suggest that the oxygen isotope changes through time and represent global synchronous changes in climate |
| Radiometric dating | Carbon-14 and Uranium series dating of sedimentary strata; global chronology of isotope stage |
| Sun spots | Dark spots on the surface of the sun |
| Sun spot cycle | The number and frequency of sun spots changes over time; 11 year cycle: > in sun spot activity |
| Sun spot- climate response | Low sun spot activity: colder and wetter climates, in general; high sun spot activity: warmer and drier climates |
| Orbital forcing | The effect on climate of slow changes in the tilt of the Earth's axis and shape of the orbit |
| Milankovitch Theory | Orbital forcing of climate change |
| Obliquity | Axial wobble; tilt of earth's axis changes over time (ranges from 21.8- 24.4 degrees) |
| Eccentricity | Circular vs. Elliptical orbital path- varies through time; variations in this will affect intensities of seasons |
| Precession | Axial wobble and rotation of elliptical orbit cause equinoxes and solstices to shift slowly along orbital path (e.g.- summer solstice occurs at position farthest from the sun vs. closest to the sun) |
| Glacial- cold/wet climate | Max. eccentricity (elliptical) orbit, max. axial tilt, correlation of solstices with farthest points away from the sun during elliptical orbit, max. cold climate conditions at poles, max. evaporation/atmospheric moisture at equatorial zone |
| Solar Influx | > in this= > glacier size (accumulation); < in this= < glacier size (melting) |
| Albedo | The extent to which an object diffusely reflects light from the sun |
| Positive feedback | > ice area, > albedo, < incoming solar radiation, < temperatures, > ice accumulation |
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