Flashcards: LSAT Logic Reasoning Questions
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| Chinh: TV producers should not pay attention to the preferences of the viewing public when making creative decisions. Great painters do not consider what the museum-going public wants to see. Lana: But TV is expressly for the viewing public. So a producer is more like a CEO than like an artist. Just as a company would be foolhardy not to consider consumers' tastes when developing products, the TV producer must consider viewers' preferences. According to Lana, Chinh's argument is flawed in that it a) is circular b) relies on a sample of consumers that is unrepresentative of consumers in general c) infers from the effect produced by an action that the action is intended to produce that effect d) fails to consider the possibility that painters may in fact try to please the museum-going public e) offers a faulty analogy | E Explanation Chinh's (C) conclusion: Television producers should not pay attention to the preferences of the viewing public when making creative decisions. Chinh's (C) evidence: 1. Great painters do not consider what the museum-going public wants to see. Lana's (L) conclusion: The TV producer must consider viewers' preferences. Lana's (L) evidence: 1. Television is expressly for the viewing public. 2. A TV producer is more like a CEO than like an artist. 3. A company would be foolhardy not to consider consumers' tastes when developing products. Per C1, Chinh draws his conclusion based on a comparison between TV producers and great artists. Lana challenges this comparison; per L1 and L2, Lana states TV producers are more like CEOs than like artists. Choice E: Per L1 and L2, Lana contradicts C1 by suggesting that it is not accurate to draw an analogy between producers and painters (artists). Choice E is correct. |
| This boulder is volcanic in origin and yet the rest of the rock in this area is sedimentary. Since this area was covered by southward-moving glaciers during the last ice age, this boulder was probably deposited here, hundreds of miles from its geological birthplace, by a glacier. Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the conclusion drawn in the argument above? a) Most boulders that have been moved by glaciers have not been moved more than 100 miles. b) The closest geological source of volcanic rock is 50 miles south of this boulder. c) The closest geological source of volcanic rock is 50 miles north of this boulder. d) There are no geological sources of volcanic rock north of this boulder. e) No other boulders of volcanic origin exist within 50 miles of this boulder. | d |
| Rifka: We do not need to stop and ask for directions. We would not need to do that unless, of course, we were lost. Craig: The fact that we are lost is precisely why we need to stop. In the exchange above, the function of Craig's comment is to: a) contradict the conclusion of Rifka's argument without offering any reason to reject any of Rifka's implicit premises b) deny one of Rifka's implicit premises and thereby arrive at a different conclusion c) imply that Rifka's argument is invalid by accepting the truth of its premises while rejecting its conclusion d) provide a counterexample to Rifka's generalization e) affirm the truth of the stated premise of Rifka's argument while remaining noncommittal about its conclusion | b Rifka's (R) conclusion: They do not need to stop and ask for directions. Rifka's (R) premises: 1. They would not need to stop and ask for directions unless, of course, they were lost. 2. (Implicit) They are not lost. Craig's (C) conclusion: They do need to stop and ask for directions. Craig's (C) premises: 1. They are lost. Craig's evidence, C1, contradicts the implicit assumption Rifka makes in R2—that they are not lost. Choice B: Craig's comment in C1 contradicts the premise that they are not lost, per R2. Based on this contradiction, he arrives at a different conclusion—that they do need to stop and ask for directions. Choice B is correct. |
| In order to expand its mailing lists for e-mail advertising, the Outdoor Sports Company has been offering its customers financial incentives if they provide the e-mail addresses of their friends. However, offering such incentives is an unethical business practice, because it encourages people to exploit their personal relationships for profit, which risks damaging the integrity of those relationships. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps justify the reasoning in the argument? a) It is unethical for people to exploit their personal relationships for profit if in doing so they risk damaging the integrity of those relationships. b) If it would be unethical to use information that was gathered in a particular way, then it is unethical to gather that information in the first place. c) It is an unethical business practice for a company to deliberately damage the integrity of its customers' personal relationships in any way d) It is unethical to encourage people to engage in behavior that could damage the integrity of their personal relationships e) Providing a friend's personal information to a company in exchange for a financial reward will almost certainly damage the integrity of one's personal relationship with that friend. | D Explanation Conclusion: Offering such incentives is an unethical business practice. Evidence: 1. In order to expand its mailing lists for e-mail advertising, the Outdoor Sports Company has been offering its customers financial incentives if they provide the e-mail addresses of their friends. 2. This practice encourages people to exploit their personal relationships for profit. 3. This risks damaging the integrity of those relationships. The conclusion relies on the idea that business practices that cause people to exploit their personal relationships for profit and risk damaging the integrity of those personal relationships are unethical. Choice D: This principle establishes that one effect of the business practice—in (3)—is unethical, which justifies the conclusion that the practice itself is unethical. Choice D is correct. |
| Glen: An emphasis on law's purely procedural side produces a concern with personal rights that leads to the individual's indifference to society's welfare. Law's primary role should be to create virtuous citizens. Sara: But such a role would encourage government to decide which modes of life are truly virtuous' that would be more dangerous than government's being overprotective of individuals' rights. The dialogue provides the most support for the claim that Glen and Sara disagree about whether a) citizens can be assumed to be capable of making good choices without governmental interference b) virtuousness on the part of citizens is more important than the protection of citizens' rights c) there is an inherent danger in allowing government to decide what constitutes virtuous behavior among citizens d) an emphasis on law's purely procedural side results in government's being overprotective of citizens' rights e) the cultivation of virtue among citizens should be the primary role of law | E Explanation Glen's (G) statements: 1. An emphasis on law's purely procedural side produces a concern with personal rights that leads to the individual's indifference to society's welfare. 2. Law's primary role should be to create virtuous citizens. Sara's (S) statements: 1. Such a role would encourage government to decide which modes of life are truly virtuous. 2. This would be more dangerous than government's being overprotective of individuals' rights. Per G2 and S2, Sarah and Glen disagree about what law's primary purpose should be. Choice E: Per G2, Glen believes that law's primary role should be to create virtuous citizens. Per S2, Sara disagrees, because she believes that this would be more dangerous than the government being overprotective of individuals' rights. Choice E is correct. |
| None of the students taking literature are taking physics, but several of the students taking physics are taking art. In addition, none of the students taking rhetoric are taking physics. Which one of the following statements follows logically from the statements above? a) There are students who are taking art but not literature. b) None of the students taking literature are taking art. c) There are students who are taking rhetoric but not literature. d) None of the students taking rhetoric are taking literature. e) There are students who are taking both art and literature. | A Explanation Statements: 1. None of the students taking literature are taking physics. 2. Several of the students taking physics are taking art. 3. None of the students taking rhetoric are taking physics. Choice A: Per (2), several of the students taking physics are taking art. Per (1), we can infer that none of the students taking physics are taking literature. Therefore, there must be several students taking art (and physics) who are not taking literature. Choice A is correct. |
| Psychologist: Psychotherapists who attempt to provide psychotherapy on radio or television talk shows are expected to do so in ways that entertain a broad audience. However, satisfying this demand is nearly always incompatible with providing high-quality psychological help. For this reason, psychotherapists should never provide psychotherepy on talk shows. Which one of the following principles must be assumed in order for the psychologists' conculsion to be properly drawn? a) It is never appropriate for psychotherapists to attempt to entertain a broad audience. b) The context in which psychological help is presented has a greater impact on its quality than the nature of the advice that is given. c) Psychotherapy should never be provided in a context in which there is any chance that the therapy might be of less than high quality. d) Most members of radio and television talk show audiences are seeking entertainmnet rather than high-quality psychological help. e) Psychotherapists should never attempt to provide psychological help in a manner that makes it unlikely to be of high quality. | E Explanation Psychologist's conclusion: Psychotherapists should never provide psychotherapy on talk shows. Psychologist's evidence: 1. Psychotherapists who attempt to provide psychotherapy on radio or television talk shows are expected to do so in ways that entertain a broad audience. 2. Satisfying this demand is nearly always incompatible with providing high-quality psychological help. In order to make the causal link between (2) and the conclusion, the argument assumes that psychotherapy should never be practiced if the psychological help it provides will not be of high quality. The answer will state a principle that affirms this assumption. Choice E: Since psychotherapists should never attempt therapy that is unlikely to be of high quality, we can properly conclude, per (2), that psychotherapists should never provide psychotherapy on talk shows. Choice E is correct. |
| Tania: A good art critic is not fair in the ordinary sense; it is only about things that do not interest one that one can give a truly unbiased opinion. Since art is passion, good cricism of art cannot be seperated from emotion. Monique: Art is not simply a passion. The best art critics passionately engage with the artwork, but render their criticsm only after shedding all of their biases and consulting general principles of aesthetics. The dialogue most strongly supports the claim that Tania and Monique disagree about whether a) art is not simply a passion b) good art criticism is sometimes unbiased c) art critics should not feel emotion toward artworks d) fairness generally requires minimizing the influence of bias e) the passionate engagement of the art critic with the artwork is the most important aspect of art criticism | B Explanation Tania's (T) conclusion: Good criticism of art cannot be separated from emotion. Tania's (T) evidence: 1. A good art critic is not fair in the ordinary sense. 2. It is only about things that do not interest one that one can give a truly unbiased opinion. 3. Art is a passion. Monique's (M) conclusion (implicit): Good art criticism can be unbiased. Monique's (M) evidence: 1. Art is not simply a passion. 2. The best art critics passionately engage with the artwork. 3. However, they render their criticism only after shedding all of their biases and consulting general principles of aesthetics. Per her conclusion, Tania believes that good art criticism cannot be separated from emotion; in light of her own evidence, Monique implies that this is untrue, and that good criticism can be unbiased. Choice B: Per T2 and T3, Tania believes that because art is a passion, good art criticism cannot be unbiased. Per M3, however, Monique believes that art critics can passionately engage with the artwork, but shed their biases before critiquing it. Choice B is correct. |
| The writing styles in works of high literary quality are not well suited to the avoidance of misinterpretation. For this reason, the writing in judicial decisions, which are primarily intended as determinations of law, is rarely of high literary quality. However, it is not uncommon to find writing of high literary quality in dissenting opinions, which are sometimes included in written decisions in cases heard by a panel of judges. Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the statements above? a) It is not uncommon for more than one judge to have an influience on the way a dissenting opinion is written. b) Unlike literary works, legal opinions rely heavily on the use of techical terminology. c) The law is not to any great extent determined by dissenting opinions. d) Judges spend much more time reading judicial decisions than reading works of high literary quality. e) Judicial decisions issues by panels of judges are likely to be more widely read than are judicial decisions issued by a single judge who hears a case alone. | C Explanation Statements: 1. The writing styles in works of high literary quality are often misinterpreted. 2. For this reason, the writing in judicial decisions, which are primarily intended as determinations of law, is rarely of high literary quality. 3. It is common to find writing of high literary quality in dissenting opinions, which are sometimes included in written decisions in cases heard by a panel of judges. Paradox: Despite the fact that judicial writing is rarely of high quality, it is not uncommon to find writing of high literary quality in dissenting opinions. Choice C: Most judicial decisions are primarily intended as determinations of law, so in light of the concern in (1) they avoid writing of high literary quality. Since the law is not determined by dissenting opinions, the same imp |
| Ecologist: Without the intervention of conservationists, squirrel monkeys will become extinct. But they will survive if large tracts of second-growth forest habitat are preserved for them. Squirrel monkeys flourish in second-growth forest because of the plentiful supply of their favorite insects and fruit. Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the ecologist's statement? a) No habitat other than second-growth forest contains plentiful supplies of squirrel monkey's favorite insects and fruit. b) At least some of the conservationists who intervene to help the squirrel monkeys survive will do so by preserving second-growth forest habitat for the monkeys. c) Without plentiful supplies of their favorite insects and fruit, squirrel monkeys will become extinct. d) If conservationists intervene to help squirrel monkeys survive, then the squirrel monkeys will not become extinct e) Without the intervention of conservationists, large tracts of second-growth forest habitat will not be preserved for squirrel monkeys. | E Explanation Ecologist's statements: 1. Without the intervention of conservationists, squirrel monkeys will become extinct. 2. They will survive if large tracts of second-growth forest habitat are preserved for them. 3. Squirrel monkeys flourish in second-growth forest because of the plentiful supply of their favorite insects and fruit. Since the first two statements are conditional, we can symbolize them as follows: 1. ~ intervention ⇒ extinction 2. habitats preserved ⇒ ~ extinction Choice E: Per the contrapositive of (2), we know that if the squirrel monkeys go extinct, then the growth forest habitat has not been preserved (extinction ⇒ ~ habitats preserved). Since (1) tells us that a lack of intervention leads to extinction, it follows that if the conservationists do not intervene, the habitats will not be preserved (~ intervention ⇒ extinction ⇒ ~ habitats preserved). Choice E is correct. |
| Over 40,000 lead seals from the early Byzantine Empire remain today. Apart from the rare cases where the seal authenticated a document of special importance, most seals had served their purpose when the document was opened. Lead was not expensive, but it was not free; most lead seals would have been recast once they had served their purpose. Thus the number of early Byzantine documents sealed in such a fashion must have been many times the number of remaining lead seals. Which one of the following statements, if true, most strengthens the argument? a) Most of the lead seals produced during the early Byzantine Empire were affixed to documents that were then opened during that period. b) Most of the lead seals produced during the early Byzantine Empire were affixed to documens that have since been destroyed. c) The amount of lead availabe for seals in the early Byzantine Empire was much greater than the amount of lead that reamins in the seals today. d) During the time of the early Byzantine Empire there were at most 40,000 documents of enough importance to prevent the removing and recycling of the seal. e) During the time of the early Byzantine Empire there were fewer than 40,000 seals affixed to documents at any given time. | A Explanation Conclusion: The number of early Byzantine documents sealed with lead must have been many times the number of remaining lead seals. Evidence: 1. Over 40,000 lead seals from the early Byzantine Empire remain today. 2. Apart from the rare cases where the seal authenticated a document of special importance, most seals had served their purpose when the document was opened. 3. Lead was not expensive, but it was not free. 4. Most lead seals would have been recast once they had served their purpose. Per (2), most lead seals had served their purpose once a document was opened, after which, per (4), they would have been recast. The answer will strengthen the argument that because of this, the remaining lead seals are greatly outnumbered by the sealed Byzantine documents that originally existed. Choice A: Since most of the lead seals were attached to documents that were opened at the time, we know, per (2), that most of the seals served their purpose. This strengthens the argument that most of the seals were recast, which suggests that relatively few remain today. Choice A is correct. |
| Farmer: In the long run, it is counterproductive for farmers to use insecticides. Because insects' resistance to insecticides increases with insecticide use, farmers have to use greater and greater amounts of costly insecticides to control insect pests. Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the farmer's argument by the proposition that farmers have to use greater and greater amounts of costly insecticides to control insect pests? a) It is the argument's main conclusion, but not its only conclusion. b) It is a claim for which a causal explanation is provided and which itself is used as direct support for the argument's only conclusion. c) It is the argument's only conclusion. d) It is a claim that is used as direct support for an intermediary conclusion, which in turn is used as direct support for the argument's main conclusion. e) It identifies a phenomenon for which the argument's main conclusion offers a causal explanation. | B Explanation Farmer's conclusion: In the long run, it is counterproductive for farmers to use insecticides. Farmer's evidence: Because (1) insects' resistance to insecticides increases with insecticide use, (2) farmers have to use greater and greater amounts of costly insecticides to control insect pests. The proposition that farmers have to use greater and greater amounts of insecticides is explained by the phenomenon in (1), that insects' resistance grows with increased use. Since increasing pesticide amounts is futile, the statement in (2) also supports the farmer's conclusion that long-term use is counterproductive. Choice B: The statement in (2) supports the conclusion, and it is causally explained by the statement in (1). Choice B is correct. |
| The manufacturers of Nosmoke claim that their product reduces smoker's cravings for cigarettes. However, in a recent study, smokers given the main ingredient in Nosmoke reported no decrease in cravings for cigarettes. Thus, since Nosmoke has only two ingredients, if similar results are found for the second ingredient, we can conclude that Nosmoke does not reduce smoker's cravings. The argument above is flawed in that it a) illicitly presumes that a whole must lack a certain quality if all of its parts lack that quality b) confuses a mere correlation with a cause c) relies on a sample that is likely to be unrepresentative d) overlooks the possibility that Nosmoke helps people to quite smoking in ways other than by reducing smoker's cravings for cigarettes e) illicitly presumes that a claim must be false because the people making the claim are biased f) | A Explanation Conclusion: If similar results are found for the second ingredient, we can conclude that NoSmoke does not reduce smokers' cravings. Evidence: 1. The manufacturers of NoSmoke claim that their product reduces smokers' cravings for cigarettes. 2. However, in a recent study, smokers given the main ingredient in NoSmoke reported no decrease in cravings for cigarettes. 3. NoSmoke only has two ingredients. The conclusion assumes that if neither of the two ingredients in NoSmoke decrease cravings for cigarettes, then NoSmoke does not reduce cravings for cigarettes. This ignores the possibility that the ingredients might have different effects in combination. Choice A: The argument assumes that a whole (NoSmoke) must lack a certain quality (reducing smokers' cravings) if all of its parts (the two ingredients) lack that quality. Choice A is correct. |
| Concert promoter: Some critics claim that our concert series lacks popular appeal. But our income from the sales of t-shirts and other memorabilia at the concerts is equal to or greater than that for similar sales at comparable series. So those critics are mistaken. The concert promoter's argument is flawed in that it a) attacks the critics on the basis of emotional considerations rather than factual ones b) takes for granted that income from sales of memorabilia is the sole indicator of popular appeal c) takes for granted that the comparable series possess popular appeal d) draws a conclusion about the popularity of a series based on a comparison with other, dissimilar events e) fails to adequately distinguish the series as a whole from indiidual concerts in it | C Explanation Concert promoter's conclusion: The concert series does not lack popular appeal. Concert promoter's evidence: 1. Some critics claim that our concert series lacks popular appeal. 2. Our income from the sales of t-shirts and other memorabilia at the concerts is equal to or greater than that for similar sales at comparable series. The concert promoter reasons that because the sales of t-shirts at the concert series are greater than or equal to those sales at comparable series, the concert series in question does not lack popular appeal. Choice C: By drawing a conclusion from a comparison with comparable series to prove that this concert series has popular appeal, the concert promoter presumes (without providing justification) that the comparable series also possess popular appeal. Choice C is correct. |
| Advice columnist: Several scientific studies have shown that, when participating in competitive sports, those people who have recently been experiencing major stress in their lives are several times more likely to suffer serious injuries than are other participants in competitive sports. Since risking serious injury is unwise, no sports activity should be used as a method for coping with stress. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the advice columnist's argument? a) If people recently under stress should avoid a subset of activities of a certain type, they should avoid all activities of that type b) A method for coping with stress should be used only if it has been subjected to scientific study c) People who have not been experiencing major stress in their lives should participate in competitve sports. d) When people have been under considerable stress, they should engage in competitive activities in order to relieve the stress. e) People with a history of sports injuries should not engage in sports activities if they have recently been under stress. | A Explanation Advice columnist's conclusion: No sports activity should be used as a method for coping with stress. Advice columnist's evidence. 1. Several scientific studies have shown that, when participating in competitive sports, those people who have recently been experiencing major stress in their lives are several times more likely to suffer serious injuries than are other participants in competitive sports. 2. Risking serious injury is unwise. The advice columnist's evidence is based on the fact that because people with major stress are more likely to suffer serious injuries when participating in competitive sports, stressed people should not participate in any sports activity. Choice A: Per (1) and (2), people recently under stress should avoid a subset of sports activities: competitive sports. Given the principle in this choice, they should also avoid all activities of that type. Choice A is correct. |
| Fund-raiser: A charitable organization rarely gives its donors the right to vote on its policies. The inability to directly influence how charities spend contributions makes potential donors feel less of an emotional connection to the carity. Thus, most charities could probably increase the amount of money they raise through donations by giving donors the right to vote. Which one of the following is an assumption that the fund-raiser's argument depends on? a) The most effective way for a charity to give potential donors the ability to directly influence what the charity does is by giving donors the right to vote on the chairty's policies. b) Most charities that have increassed the amount of money they raise thorugh donations have done so by making potential donors feel a greater emotional connection to the charity. c) Every charity that has given donors the right to vote on its policies has seen a marked increase in the emotional connection donors have to that charity. d) Most potential donors to a charity are unwilling to give that charity any money if there is no possible way for them to have any influence of that charity's policies. e) The emotional connection potential donors feel to a charity can affect the amount of money that charity raises through donations. | E Explanation Fund-raiser's conclusion: Most charities could probably increase the amount of money they raise through donations by giving donors the right to vote on its policies. Fund-raiser's evidence: 1. A charitable organization rarely gives its donors the right to vote on its policies. 2. The inability to directly influence how charities spend contributions makes potential donors feel less of an emotional connection to the charity. Per (2), the inability of a donor to influence a charity's policies diminishes the emotional connection to that charity. The fund-raiser argues that by empowering donors to influence policies, most charities could probably increase the amount of money they raise. For that conclusion to be valid, it has to be established that the result of greater influence—a stronger emotional connection—"can affect the amount of money that charity raises through donations." Choice E points to this assumption, so it is the correct answer. |
| Leslie: I'll show you that your quest for the treasure is irrational. Suppose you found a tablet inscribed, Whoever touches this tablet will lose a hand, yet will possess the world." Would you touch it? Erich" Certainly not. Leslie: Just as I expected. It is clear from your answer that your hands are more important to you than possessing the world. But your entire body is necessarily more important to you than your hands. Yet you are ruining your health and harming your body in your quest for a treasure that is much less valuable than the whole world. I rest my case. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion drew in Leslie's argument? a) Erich would not sacrifice one of his hands in order to possess the world b) Erich should not risk his physical well being regardless of the possible gains that such risks might bring. c) Erich is irrationally risking something that is precious to him for something that is of no value. d) Erich can be convinced that his quest for the treasure is irrational. e) Erich is engaging in irrational behavior by pursuing his quest for the treasure. | E Explanation Structure of Leslie's argument: 1. Leslie claims that she will show Erich that his quest for treasure is irrational. 2. Leslie proves that if Erich found a tablet inscribed, 'Whoever touches this tablet will lose a hand, yet will possess the world.' he would not touch it. 3. Leslie asserts that Erich's hands are more important to him than possessing the world. 4. Leslie points out that Erich's entire body is necessarily more important to Erich than Erich's hands. 5. Leslie argues that Erich is ruining his health and harming his body in his quest for a treasure that is much less valuable than the whole world. Choice E: Leslie sets out to prove that Erich's quest for treasure is irrational and argues that this is in fact true from point (5). She concludes that her initial claim (1) is supported by her argument, that Erich's quest is irrational because he is engaging in "irrational behavior," ruining his health and harming his body by pursuing his quest for the treasure that is much less valuable than the whole world. Choice E is correct. |
| Newspaper article: People who take vitamin C supplements tend to be healthier than average. This was shown by a study investigating the relationship between high doses of vitamin C and heart disease, which showed that people who regularly consume high doses of vitamin C supplements have a significantly lower than average risk of heart disease. Which one of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument in the newspaper article? a) Vitamin C taken in the form of supplements has a different effect on the body than does vitamind C taken in food. b) The reduction in risk of heart disease due to the consumption of vitamin C is no greater than the reduction due to certain other dietary changes. c) Taking both vitamin C supplements and vitamin E supplements lowers one's risk of heart disease far more than does taking either one alone. d) High doses of vitamin C supplements tend to reduce slightly one's resistance to certain common infectious diseases. e) Taking vitamin C supplements has been found to lower one's risk of developing cancer. | D Explanation Newspaper article's conclusion: People who take vitamin C supplements tend to be healthier than average. Newspaper article's evidence: 1. A study investigated the relationship between vitamin C and heart disease. 2. The study showed that people who regularly consume high doses of vitamin C supplements have a significantly lower than average risk of heart disease. The article concludes that those who consume vitamin C supplements are healthier than average based on the evidence that they have a lower than average risk of heart disease. Choice D: Reducing one's resistance to infectious diseases is a negative impact of these supplements. Risk of heart disease is not the only criteria upon which to assess one's health. Because the conclusion of the argument is that those who consume vitamin C supplements tend to be healthier than average, providing evidence of any negative impact on health caused by the supplements weakens the conclusion. Choice D is correct. |
| George: Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s, hardly anyone learned ballroom dancing. Why is it that a large number of people now take ballroom dancing lessons? Boris: It's because beginning in 1995, many people learned the merengue and several related ballroom dances. Because these dances are so popular, other ballroom dances are now catching on. Boris's response to George is most vulnerable to criticism because it fails to a) show that the people who learned the merengue are the same people who are now interested in other ballroom dances b) explain why ballroom dancing was so unpopular before 1996 c) relate the merengue to the forms of dancing that were more prevalent before 1995 d) account for the beginning of the revival of interest in ballroom dancing e) demonstrate that all types of ballroom dancing are currently popular | D Explanation George's (G) question: 1. Why is it that a large number of people now take ballroom dancing lessons? Boris' (B) explanation: 1. Beginning in 1995, many people learned the merengue and several related ballroom dances. 2. Because these dances are so popular, other ballroom dances are now catching on. George asks why a large number of people are now taking ballroom dancing lessons. Boris responds that many people began to learn certain ballroom dances (merengue and several related ballroom dances) beginning in 1995. The answer will point out a weakness in this response. Choice D: Boris restates what we know, that many people began to take ballroom dancing lessons after the early 1990s. He does not explain why this occurred or "account for the beginning of the revival of interest in ballroom dancing". Stating that other dances "are now catching on" does not address the question, for this catching on comes after many people already learned a ballroom dance. Choice D highlights how Boris's response is vulnerable to criticism and is correct. |
| On the basis of relatively minor morphological differences, some scientists suggest that Neanderthals should be considered a species distinct from Cro-Magnons, the forerunners of modern humans. Yet the fact that the tools used by these two groups of hominids living in different environments were of exactly the same type indicates uncanny behavioral similarities, for only if they faced the same daily challenges and met them in the same way would they have used such similar tools. This suggest that they were members of the same species, and that the morphological differences are due merely to their having lived in different environments. If the statements above are true, then each of the following could be true EXCEPT: a) Morphological difference between the members of two populations do not guarantee that the two populations do not belong to the same species b) The daily challenges with which an environment confronts its inhabitants are unique to that environment c) There are greater morphological differences between Cro-Magnons and modern humans than there are between Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals d) Use of similar tools is required if members of two distinct groups of tool-making hominids are to considered members of the same species e) Through much of their coexistence, Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals were geographically isolated from one another. | B Explanation Statements: 1. On the basis of relatively minor morphological differences, some scientists suggest that Neanderthals should be considered a species distinct from Cro-Magnons, the forerunners of modern humans. 2. Yet the fact that the tools used by these two groups of hominids living in different environments were of exactly the same type indicates uncanny behavioral similarities, for only if they faced the same daily challenges and met them in the same way would they have used such similar tools. 3. This suggests that they were members of the same species, and that the morphological differences are due merely to their having lived in different environments. The correct answer CAN NOT be true if the statements above are true. Choice B: Per (2), Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons lived in different environments but faced the same daily challenges. Choice B cannot be true and is thus correct. |
| The local radio station will not win the regional ratings race this year. In the past ten years the station has never finished better than fifth place in the ratings. The station's manager has not responded to its dismal ratings by changing its musical format or any key personnel, while the competition has often sought to respond to changing tastes in music and has aggressively recruited the region's top radio personalities. The reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above? a) Every swan I have seen was white. Therefore all swans are probably white. b) A fair coin was fairly flipped six times and was heads every time. The next flip will probably be heads too. c) All lions are mammals. Therefore Leo, the local zoo's oldest lion, is a mammal too. d) Recently stock prices have always been lower on Mondays. Therefore they will be lower this coming Monday too. e) Only trained swimmers are lifeguards, so it follows that the next lifeguard at the local pool will be trained swimmer. | D Explanation Conclusion (Y): The local radio station will not win the regional ratings race this year. Evidence (X): 1. In the past ten years, the station has never finished better than fifth place in the ratings. Logical Structure: X (a past trend) is used to make a sure prediction that Y (a future event that follows this trend) will occur. Choice D: X (a past trend) is used to make a sure prediction that Y (a future event that follows this trend) will occur. Because stock prices have always been lower on Mondays (X), they will be lower this Monday (Y). |
| Chef: This mussel recipe's first step is to sprinkle the live mussels with cornmeal. The cornmeal is used to clean them out: they take the cornmeal in and eject the sand they contain. But I can skip this step, because the mussels available at seafood markets are farm raised and therefore do not contain sand. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the chef's argument? 1) Cornmeal is not used to clean out farm-raised mussels before they reach seafood markets. 2) Mussels contain no contaminants other than sand. 3) Sprinkling the mussels with cornmeal does not affect their taste. 4) The chef's mussel recipe was written before farm-raised mussels became available. 5) The mussels the chef is using for the mussel recipe came from a seafood market. | E Explanation Chef's conclusion: The chef can skip the step of sprinkling of mussels with cornmeal for this mussel's recipe. Statements: 1. This mussel recipe's first step is to sprinkle the live mussels with cornmeal. 2. The cornmeal is used to clean them out. 3. They take the cornmeal in and eject the sand that they contain. 4. The mussels available at seafood markets are farm raised and therefore do not contain sand. Choice E: According to (3), mussels need cornmeal in order to eject sand. If there were no sand to eject, the cornmeal would not be necessary. Mussels available at seafood markets do not contain sand and thus do not need cornmeal; if the chef in fact used the mussels available at the market, he would not need cornmeal. Choice E is correct. |
| We can now dismiss the widely held suspicion that sugar consumption often exacerbates hyperactivity in children with attention deficit disorder. A scientific study of the effects of three common sugars - sucrose, fructose, and glucose - on children who have attention deficit disorder, with experimental groups each receiving a type of sugar in their diets and a control group receiving a sugar substitute instead of sugar, showed no statistically significant difference between the groups in thinking or behavior. Which one of the following if true, would most weaken the argument above? a) Only one of the three types of sugar used in the study was ever widely suspected of exacerbating hyperactivity. b) The consumption of sugar actually has a calming effect on some children. c) The consumption of some sugar substitutes exacerbates the symptoms of hyperactivity. d) The study included some observations of each group in contexts that generally tend to make children excited and active. e) Some children believe that they can tell the difference between the taste of sugar and that of sugar substitutes. | C Explanation Conclusion: The widely held suspicion that sugar consumption often exacerbates hyperactivity in children with attention deficit disorder is false. Evidence: 1. A scientific study of the effects of three common sugars—sucrose, fructose, and glucose—on children who have attention deficit disorder was conducted. 2. The study had experimental groups each receive a type of sugar in their diets and a control group receiving a sugar substitute instead of sugar. 3. The study showed no statistically significant difference between the groups in thinking or behavior. To weaken the argument, the correct answer must undermine the validity of the study's results. Choice C: If sugar substitutes also increase hyperactivity, then the group given sugar substitutes was not a reliable control group. The children in the control group could also have become more hyperactive. Choice C is correct. |
| It is a mistake to think, as ecologists once did, that natural selection will eventually result in organisms that will be perfectly adapted to their environments. After all, perfect adaptation of an individual to its environment is impossible, for an individual's environment can vary tremendously; no single set of attributes could possibly prepare an organism to cope with all the conditions that it could face. Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument? a) It is not possible for an individual to be perfectly adapted to its environment. b) Natural selection will never result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments. c) No single set of attributes could enable an individual organism to cope with all of the conditions that it might face. d) Because an individual's environment can vary tremendously, no individual can be perfectly adapted to its environment. e) Ecologists once believed that natural selection would eventually result in individuals that will be perfectly adapted to their environments. | B Explanation Conclusion: Natural selection will not eventually result in organisms that are perfectly adapted to their environments. Evidence: 1. Ecologists once thought that natural selection will eventually result in organisms that will be perfectly adapted to their environments. 2. An individual's environment can vary. 3. No single set of attributes could prepare an organism for all conditions. 4. Perfect adaptation of an individual to its environment is impossible (intermediate conclusion based on 2 & 3). The answer should restate the conclusion. Note that the conclusion describes, organisms, a group of individuals, so the paraphrased conclusion should also address a group of individuals rather than a singular individual. Choice B restates the conclusion. Choice B is correct. |
| It would not be surprising to discover that the trade routes between China and the West were opened many centuries, even millennia, earlier than 200 BC, contrary to what is currently believed. After all, what made the Great Silk Road so attractive as a trade route linking China and the West - level terrain, easily traversable mountain passes, and desert oases - would also have made it an attractive route for the original emigrants to China from Africa and the Middle East, and this early migration began at least one million years ago. That a migration from Africa and the Middle East to China occurred at least one million years ago figures in the above reasoning in which one of the following ways. a) It is cited as conclusive evidence for the claim that trade links between China and the Middle East were established long before 200 BC b) It is an intermediate conclusion made plausible by the description of the terrain along which the migration supposedly took place. c) It is offered as evidence in support of the claim that trade routes between China and the West could easily have been established much earlier than is currently believed d) It is offered as evidence against the claim that trade routes between China and Africa preceded those eventually established between China and the Middle East. e) It is the main conclusion that the argument attempts to establish about intercourse between China and the West. | C Explanation Conclusion: The trade routes may have been opened many centuries, even millennia, earlier than 200 B.C. Evidence: 1. It is currently believed that trade routes between China and the West opened after 200 B.C. 2. Silk Road was an attractive trade route due to level terrain, traversable mountain passes, and desert oases. 3. Original emigrants to China from Africa and the Middle East would also have found Silk Road's characteristics attractive. 4. The migration from Africa and the Middle East to China occurred at least 1 million years ago. The answer should state that (4) is evidence for the conclusion that the trade routes between China and the West may have been opened earlier than 200 B.C. Choice C: The statement supports the conclusion that the routes between China and the West may have opened earlier than currently believed. |
| The typological theory of species classification, which has few adherents today, distinguishes species solely on the basis of observable physical characteristics, such as plumage color, adult size, or dental structure. However, there are many so-called "sibling species," which are indistinguishable on the basis of their appearance but cannot interbreed on the basis of their appearance but cannot interbreed and thus, according to the mainstream biological theory of species classification, are separate species. Since the typological theory does not count sibling species as separate species, it is unacceptable. The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that a) the argument does not evaluate all aspects of the typological theory b) the argument confuses a necessary condition for species distinction with a sufficient condition for species distinction c) the argument, in its attempt to refute on theory of species classification, presupposes the truth of an opposing theory d) the argument takes a single fact that is incompatible with a theory as enough to show that theory to be false e) the argument does not explain why sibling species cannot interbreed | C Explanation Conclusion: Typological theory of classification is unacceptable. Evidence: 1. Typological theory distinguishes based solely on physical characteristics. 2. "Sibling species" look similar but cannot interbreed. 3. The mainstream classification theory classifies sibling species as different species. 4. Typological theory does not classify sibling species as different species. The argument assumes that because the typological theory does not conform to the mainstream theory, it is unacceptable. Choice C: The argument refutes one theory (typological theory) by assuming that a second theory (mainstream classification theory) is true. However, it never establishes that the second theory is true. Choice C is correct. |
| Chiu: The belief that a person is always morally blameworthy for feeling certain emotions, such as unjustifiable anger, jealousy, or resentment, is misguided. Individuals are responsible for only what is under their control, and whether one feels such an emotion is not always under one's control. Chiu's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? a) Individuals do not have control over their actions when they feel certain emotions. b) If a person is morally blameworthy for something, then that person is responsible for it. c) Although a person may sometimes be unjustifiably angry, jealous, or resentful, there are occasions when these emotions are appropriate. d) If an emotion is under a person's control, then that person cannot hold others responsible for it. e) The emotions for which a person is most commonly blamed are those that are under that person's control. | B Explanation Conclusion: A person is not always morally blameworthy for feeling certain emotions. Evidence: 1. People are only responsible for what is under their control. 2. Whether someone feels an emotion is not always under his or her control. The author assumes that there is a connection between being morally blameworthy for something and being responsible for it. Choice B: (1) and (2) tell us that people are not always responsible for their emotions. Per the contrapositive of this choice, if a person is not responsible for something, then they are not morally blameworthy. Thus, we can properly conclude that people are not always blameworthy for their emotions. Choice B is correct. |
| In a poll of a representative sample of a province's residents, the provincial capital was the city most often selected as the best place to live in that province. Since the capital is also the largest of that province's many cities, the poll shows that most residents of that province generally prefer life in large cities to life in small cities. The argument is most vulnerable to the criticism that it a) overlooks the possibility that what is true of the residents of the province may not be true of other people b) does not indicate whether most residents of other provinces also prefer life in large cities to life in small cities c) takes for granted that when people are polled for their preferences among cities, they tend to vote for the city that they think is the best place to live d) overlooks the possibility that the people who preferred small cities over the provincial capital did so not because of their general feelings about the sizes of cities, but because of their general feelings about capital cities e) overlooks the possibility that most people may have voted for small cities even though a large city received more votes than any other single city | E Explanation Conclusion: Most residents in a certain province prefer big cities to small cities. Evidence: 1. In a poll of a representative sample of a province's residents, the provincial capital was the city most often selected as the best place to live in that province. 2. The capital is also the largest of that province's many cities. The answer must provide a reason to doubt the argument that the number of votes cast for the capital city indicates a general preference for big cities. Choice E: Even though the capital received the most votes of any single city, the overall total of votes for small cities could be greater than that of votes for big cities. This result would suggest that most residents prefer small cities to big cities, not vice versa. Choice E is correct. |
| Geneticist: Genes, like viruses, have a strong tendency to self-replicate; this has led some biologists to call genes "selfish." This term is, in this instance, intended to be defined behaviorally; it describes what genes do without ascribing intentions to them. But even given that genes are ascribed no intentions, the label "selfish" as applied to genes is a misnomer. Selfishness only concerns bringing about the best conditions for oneself, creating replicas of oneself is not selfish. Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the geneticist's conclusion to be properly drawn? a) Bringing about the best conditions for oneself is less important than doing this for others. b) Creating replicas of oneself does not help bring about the best conditions for oneself. c) The behavioral definition of "selfish" is incompatible with its everyday definition. d) To ignore the fact that self-replication is not limited to genesis to misunderstand genetic behavior. e) Biologists have insufficient evidence about genetic behavior to determine whether it is best described as selfish. | B Explanation Conclusion: The term "selfish" is a misnomer when applied to genes. Evidence: 1. Genes tend to self-replicate. 2. Some biologists call genes "selfish," which is intended to be defined behaviorally. 3. "Selfish" describes what genes do without ascribing intentions to them. 4. Selfishness only concerns creating the best conditions for oneself. 5. Creating replicas of oneself is not selfish (intermediate conclusion based on 3 & 4). The argument is missing a link between (4) and (5). Per (5), creating replicas of oneself is not selfish, yet for this to be true, self-replicating must not bring about the best conditions for oneself. Otherwise, per (4),"selfish" would be an accurate description of genes' behavior. Choice B states that replicating oneself does not bring about the best conditions for oneself. Thus, per (4), creating replicas of oneself is not selfish, thereby allowing the geneticist to properly conclude that "selfish" is a misnomer. Choice B is correct. |
| Only experienced salespeople will be able to meet the company's selling quota. Thus, I must not count as an experienced salesperson, since I will be able to sell only half the quota. The pattern of flawed reasoning exhibited by the argument above is most similar to that exhibited by which one of the following? a) Only on Fridays are employees allowed to dress casually. Today is Friday but Hector is dressed formally. So he must not be going to work. b) Only music lovers take this class. Thus, since Hillary is not taking this class, she apparently does not love music. c) Only oceanographers enjoy the Atlantic in midwinter. Thus, we may expect that Gerald does not enjoy the Atlantic in midwinter, since he is not an oceanographer. d) As this tree before us is a giant redwood, it follows that we must be in northern latitude, since it is only in northern latitudes that one finds giant redwoods. e) Only accomplished mountain climbers can scale El Capitan. Thus, Michelle must be able to scale El Capitan, since she is an accomplished mountain climber. | B Explanation Argument: 1. Only X (experienced sales people) are Q (capable of meeting the quota). 2. Since Person N is not Q, Person N is not X. Expressed formally: 1. Q ⇒ X 2. ~ Q ⇒ ~ X The argument is flawed because it confuses sufficient and necessary conditions: it assumes that because, per (1), all people who are Q are also X (Q ⇒ X) that all people who are not Q are not X (~ Q⇒ ~X). However, person N may still be X even though N is not Q. The answer should similarly use the inverse (~ Q ⇒ ~ X) of a stated condition (Q ⇒ X) to make an erroneous conclusion. (1) does not imply that ~ Q ⇒ X is true. Choice B: This choice draws a conclusion based on the inverse of a stated condition as in the prompt: 1. Only X (music lovers) are Q (people who take this class) (X ⇒ Q) 2. Since person N (Hillary) is not X, she is not Q (~ X ⇒~ Q). Choice B is correct. |
| Designer: Any garden and adjoining living room that are separated from one another by sliding glass doors can visually merge into a single space. If the sliding doors are open, as may happen in summer, this effect will be created if it does not already exist and intensified if it does. The effect remains quite strong during colder months if the garden is well coordinated with the room and contributes strong visual interest of its own. The designer's statements, if true, most strongly support which one of the following? a) A garden separated from an adjoining living room by closed sliding glass doors cannot be well coordinated with the room unless the garden contributes strong visual interest. b) In cold weather, a garden and an adjoining living room separated from one another by sliding glass doors will not visually merge into a single space unless the garden is well coordinated with the room. c) A garden and an adjoining living room separated by sliding glass doors cannot visually merge in summer unless the doors are open. d) A garden can visually merge with an adjoining living room into a single space even if the garden does not contribute strong visual interest of its own. e) Except in summer, opening the sliding glass doors that separate a garden from an adjoining living room does not intensify the effect of the garden and room visually merging into a single space. | D Explanation Evidence: 1. Any garden and adjoining living room that are separated from one another by sliding glass doors can visually merge into a single space. 2. The sliding doors can open and this may happen in summer. 3. Open sliding doors will create the visually merging effect if it does not already exist or intensify the merging effect if it does exist. 4. If the garden is well coordinated with the room and contributes strong visual interest of its own, the effect remains quite strong during colder months. The correct answer must be a statement that is supported by the above information. Choice D: While (4) establishes that gardens may not have visual interest of on their own, per (1), any garden with sliding doors can merge visually with a living room, regardless of whether the garden is visually interesting. Choice D is correct. |
| Last summer, after a number of people got sick from eating locally caught anchovies, the coastal city of San Martin advised against eating such anchovies. The anchovies were apparently tainted with domoic acid, a harmful neurotoxin. However, a dramatic drop in the population of P. australis plankton to numbers more normal for local coast waters indicates that it is once again safe to eat locally caught anchovies. Which one of the following, if true, would most help to explain why it is now safe to lift the advisory? a) P. australis is one of several varieties of plankton common to the region that, when ingested by anchovies, cause the latter to secrete small amounts of domoic acid. b) P. australis naturally produces domoic acid, though anchovies consume enough to because toxic only when the population of P. australis is extraordinarily large. c) Scientists have used P. australis plankton to obtain domoic acid in the laboratory. d) A sharp decline in the population of P. australis is typically mirrored by a corresponding drop in the local anchovy population. e) P. australis cannot survive in large numbers in seawater that does not contain significant quantities of domoic acid along with numerous other compounds. | B Explanation Conclusion: It is once again safe to eat locally caught anchovies. Evidence: 1. Last summer, a number of people got sick from eating locally caught anchovies. 2. As a result, the coastal city of San Martin advised against eating such anchovies. 3. The anchovies were apparently tainted with domoic acid, a harmful neurotoxin. 4. A dramatic drop in the population of P. australis plankton to numbers more normal for local coastal waters indicates that it is once again safe to eat locally caught anchovies. For the anchovies to be safe, the drop in P. australis plankton must have somehow eliminated the threat posed by domoic acid. Choice B: If anchovies can only eat enough plankton to become toxic when the population of P. australis is extraordinarily large, normal levels of the plankton would indicate that the anchovies were no longer toxic and thus now safe to eat. Choice B is correct. |
| Constance: The traditional definition of full employment as a 5 percent unemployment rate is correct, because at levels below 5 percent inflation rises. Brigita: That traditional definition of full employment was developed before the rise of temporary and part-time work and the fall in benefit levels. When people are juggling several part-time jobs with no benefits, or working in a series of temporary assignments, as is now the case, 5 percent unemployment is not full employment. The dialogue most strongly supports the claim that Constance and Brigita disagree with each other about which one of the following? a) what definition of full employment is applicable under contemporary economic conditions b) whether it is a good idea, all things considered, to allow the unemployment level to drop below 5 percent c) whether a person with a part-time job should count as fully employed d) whether the number of part-time and temporary workers has increased since the traditional definition of full employment was developed e) whether unemployment levels above 5 percent can cause inflation levels to rise | A Explanation Constance's (C) conclusion: The traditional definition of full employment as a 5 percent unemployment rate is correct. Constance's (C) evidence: 1. At lower unemployment levels, inflation rises. Brigita's (B) conclusion: 5 percent unemployment is not full unemployment in today's economy. Brigita's (B) evidence: 1. That traditional definition of full employment was developed before the rise of temporary and part-time work and the fall in benefit levels. 2. Yet people are juggling several part-time jobs with no benefits, or working in a series of temporary assignments. The two disagree over whether 5 percent unemployment should be considered full employment in today's economy. Choice A: Per C conclusion, Constance believes that 5 percent unemployment is full employment. Per B conclusion, Brigita believes that 5 percent unemployment does not constitute full employment under current economic conditions. Choice A is correct. |
| The supernova event of 1987 is interesting in that there is still no evidence of the neutron star that current theory says should have remained after a supernova of that size. This is in spite of the fact that many of the most sensitive instruments ever developed have searched for the telltale pulse of radiation that neutron stars emit. Thus, current theory is wrong in claiming that supernovas of a certain size always produce neutron stars. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument? a) Most supernova remnants that astronomers have detected have a neutron star nearby. b) Sensitive astronomical instruments have detected neutron stars much farther away than the location of the 1987 supernova. c) The supernova of 1987 was the first that scientists were able to observe in progress d) Several important features of the 1987 supernova are correctly predicted by the current theory. e) Some neutron stars are known to have come into existence by a cause other than a supernova explosion. | B Explanation Conclusion: The theory that supernovas of a certain size always produces neutron stars is wrong. Evidence: 1. The supernova event of 1987 has yielded no evidence of a neutron star that, according to a current theory, should have remained after a supernova of that size. 2. The most sensitive instruments ever developed were used to search for a neutron star. The answer must strengthen the assumption that the failure to detect the neutron star occurred because no neutron star was created by the supernova. Choice B: Since the instruments in (2) can detect stars farther away, this eliminates the possibility that the neutron star was not detected because it was out of reach. As a result, this statement strengthens the argument. Choice B is correct. |
| On average, corporations that encourage frequent social events in the workplace show higher profits than those that rarely do. This suggests that the EZ Corporation could boost its profits by having more staff parties during business hours. Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the argument above? a) The great majority of corporations that encourage frequent social events in the workplace do so at least in part because they are already earning above-average profits. b) Corporations that have frequent staff parties after business hours sometimes have higher profits than do corporations that have frequent staff parties during business hours. c) The EZ Corporation already earns above-average profits, and it almost never brings play into the workplace. d) Frequent social events in a corporate workplace leave employees with less time to perform their assigned duties than they would otherwise have. e) At one time the EZ Corporation encouraged social events in the workplace more frequently than it currently does, but it has not always been one of the most profitable corporations of its size. | A Explanation Conclusion: EZ Corporation could boost profits by throwing more parties for employees during business hours. Evidence: 1. On average, corporations that encourage more social events in the workplace have higher profits than those that rarely throw such events. The author assumes that throwing social events causes profits to increase. The answer must undermine this assumption. Choice A: This statement shows that the author may have confused cause and effect. Above-average profits is a cause, not an effect, of encouraging frequent social events. Choice A is correct. |
| Researchers have discovered that caffeine can be as physically addictive as other psychoactive substances. Some people find that they become unusually depressed, drowsy, or even irritable if they do not have their customary dose of caffeine. This is significant because as many people consume caffeine as consume any one of the other addictive psychoactive substances. Which one of the following can be logically concluded from the information above? a. There is no psychoactive substance to which more people are physically addicted than are addicted to caffeine. b. A physical addiction to a particular psychoactive substance will typically give rise to diverse psychological symptoms. c. Not all substances to which people can become physically addicted are psychoactive. d. If one is physically addicted to a psychoactive substance, one will become unusually depressed when one is not longer ingesting that substance. e. If alcohol is a physically addictive psychoactive substance, there are not more people who consume than consume caffeine. | e |
| Science journalist, Brown dwarfs are celestial objects with more mass than planets but less mass than stars. They are identified by their mass and whether or not lithium is present in their atmospheres. Stars at least as massive as the Sun have lithium remaining in their atmospheres because the mixing of elements in their internal nuclear furnaces is incomplete. Stars with less mass than the Sun have no lithium because the element has been fully mixed into their nuclear furnaces and consumed. A brown dwarf does not have a fully functional nuclear furnace and so its lithium cannot be consumed. Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the science journalist's statements? a. Any celestial object without lithium in its atmosphere is a star with less mass than the Sun. b. Any celestial object with lithium in its atmosphere has a nuclear furnace that has incompletely mixed the object's elements. c. No celestial object that has no lithium in its atmosphere is a brown dwarf. d. No celestial object with lithium in its atmosphere has less mass than the Sun. e. No celestial object less massive than a brown dwarf has lithium in its atmosphere. | c |
| To be horrific, a monster must be threatening. Whether or not it presents psychological, moral or social dangers, or triggers enduring infantile fears, if a monster is physically dangerous then it is threatening. In fact, even a physically benign monster is horrific is it inspires revulsion. Which one of the following logically follows from the statements above? a. Any horror-story monster that is threatening is also horrific. b. A monster that is psychologically dangerous, but that does not inspire revulsion, is not horrific. c. If a monster triggers infantile fears but is not physically dangerous, then it is not horrific. d. If a monster is both horrific and psychologically threatening, then it does not inspire revulsion. e. All monsters that are not physical dangerous, but that are psychologically dangerous and inspire revulsion, are threatening. | e |
| The familiar slogan "survival of the fittest" is popularly used to express the claim, often mistakenly attributed to evolutionary biologists, that the fittest are most likely to survive. However, biologists use the term "fittest" of mean "most likely to survive," so the slogan is merely claiming that the most likely to survive are the most likely to survive. While this claim is clearly true, it is a tautology and so is neither informative nor of scientific interest. The argument above depends on assuming which one of the following? a) All claims that are of scientific interest are informative. b) Only claims that are true are of scientific interest. c) Popular slogans are seldom informative or of scientific interest. d) Informative scientific claims cannot use terms in the way they are popularly used. e) The truth of a purported scientific claim is not sufficient for it to be of scientific interest. | E Explanation Conclusion: While the claim of "survival of the fittest" is clearly true, it is a tautology and so is neither informative nor of scientific interest. Statements: 1. The familiar slogan "survival of the fittest" is popularly used to express the claim, often mistakenly attributed to evolutionary biologists, that the fittest are most likely to survive. 2. However, biologists use the term "fittest" to mean "most likely to survive," so the slogan is merely claiming that the most likely to survive are the most likely to survive. The argument assumes that if a statement is tautological, it is not informative and not of scientific interest, regardless of whether the statement is true. Choice E: If the truth of a purported scientific claim is sufficient for it to be of scientific interest, then the conclusion that the claim of "survival of the fittest" is not of scientific interest would not hold (because the claim is true). Choice E is correct. |
| Editorial: It is clear that what is called "health education" is usually propaganda rather than education. Propaganda and education are never the same thing. The former is nothing but an attempt to influence behavior through the repetition of simplistic slogans, whereas the latter never involves such a method. Though education does attempt to influence behavior, it does so by offering information in all its complexity, leaving it up to the individual to decide how to act on that information. Sadly, however, propaganda is much more successful than education. The conclusion drawn by the editorial follows logically if it is assumed that what is called "health education" usually a) does not leave it up to the individual to decide how to act on information b) does not offer information in all its complexity c) does not involve the repetition of simplest slogans d) attempts to influence behavior solely by repeating simplistic slogans e) is very successful in influencing people's behavior All material bodies are divisible into parts, and everything divisible is imperfect. It flows that all material bodies are imperfect. It likewise follows that the spirit is not a material body. The final conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? a) Everything divisible is a material body b) Nothing imperfect is indivisible. c) The spirit is divisible. d) The spirit is perfect e) The spirit is either indivisible or imperfect. | D Explanation Conclusion: The spirit is not a material body. Evidence: 1. All material bodies are divisible into parts 2. Everything divisible is imperfect. 3. Per (1) and (2), all material bodies are imperfect. Expressed formally: Conclusion: spirit ⇒ ~ material body Evidence: 1. material body ⇒ divisible 2. divisible ⇒ imperfect 3. material body ⇒ imperfect (intermediate conclusion) The argument assumes a connection between spirit and the qualities (divisibility and imperfection) that characterize a material body. Choice D: If spirit ⇒ perfect and, per (3), material body ⇒ imperfect, then spirit ⇒ ~ material body. Choice D is correct. |
| When students receive negative criticism generated by computer programs, they are less likely to respond positively than when the critic is a human. Since the acceptance of criticism requires that one respond positively to it, students are more likely to learn from criticism by humans than from criticism by computers. Which one of he following is an assumption on which the argument depends? a) Students are more likely to learn from criticism that they accept than from criticism they do not accept. b) Unlike human critics, computers are incapable of showing compassion. c) Students always know whether their critics are computers or humans. d) Criticism generated by computers is likely to be less favorable than that produced by human critics in response to the same work. e) Criticism generated by computers is likely to be no more or less favorable than that produced by human critics in response to the same work. | A Explanation Conclusion: Students are more likely to learn from criticism by humans than from criticism by computers. Evidence: 1. When students receive negative criticism generated by computer programs, they are less likely to respond positively than when the critic is a human. 2. Acceptance of criticism requires that one respond positively to it. The argument assumes that responding positively to criticism, per (1), and the acceptance of criticism, per (2), results in students being more likely to learn well. Choice A: For the argument to hold up, students must be more likely to learn from criticism that they accept than from criticism they do not accept. Choice A is correct. |
| Environmentalist: Many people prefer to live in regions of natural beauty. Such regions often experience an influx of new residents, and a growing population encourages businesses to relocate to those regions. Thus, governmentally mandated environmental protection in regions of natural beauty can help those regions' economies overall, even if such protection harms some older local industries. Which one of the following is an assumption on which the environmentalist's argument depends? a) Regions of natural beauty typically are beautiful enough to attract new residents only until governmentally mandated environmental protection that damages local industries is imposed. b) The economies of most regions of natural beauty are not based primarily on local industries that would be harmed by governmentally mandated environmental protection. c) If governmentally mandated environmental protection helps a region's economy, it does so primarily by encouraging people to move into that region. d) Voluntary environmental protection usually does not help a region's economy to the degree that governmentally mandated protection does. e) A factor harmful to some older local industries in a region need not discourage other businesses from relocating to that region. | E Explanation Environmentalist's conclusion: Governmentally mandated environmental protection in regions of natural beauty can help those regions' economies overall, even if such protection harms some older local industries. Environmentalist's evidence: 1. Many people prefer to live in regions of natural beauty. 2. Such regions often experience an influx of new residents, and a growing population encourages businesses to relocate to those regions. The environmentalist's conclusion relies on the assumption that because of the influx of new residents which encourages businesses to relocate, per (2), these region's economies will improve overall, even if such protection harms some older local industries. Choice E: In order for the environmentalist's conclusion that new business will relocate to the area and improve the economy to hold, it must be true that a factor harmful to some older local industries in a region need not discourage other businesses from relocating to that region. Choice E is correct. |
| Although the geological record contains some hints of major meteor impacts preceding mass extinction, there were many extincitions that did not follow any known major meteor impacts. Likewise, there are many records of major meteor impacts that do not seem to have been followed by mass extinctions. Thus the geological record suggests that there is no consistent causal link between major meteor impacts and mass extinctions. Which one of the following assumptions enables the argument's conclusion to be properly inferred? a) If there were a consistent causal link between major meteor impacts and mass extinctions, then all major meteor impacts would be followed by mass extinctions. b) Major meteor impacts and mass extinctions cannot be consistently causally linked unless many mass extinctions have followed major meteor impacts. c) Of the mass extinctions that did not follow any known major meteor impacts, few if any followed major meteor impacts of which the geological record contains no hints. d) If there is no consistent causal link between major meteor impacts and mass extinctions, then not all mass extinctions could have followed major meteor impacts. e) There could be a consistent causal link between major meteor impacts and mass extinctions even if not every major meteor impact has been followed by a mass extinction. | A Explanation Conclusion: The geological record suggests that there is no consistent causal link between major meteor impacts and mass extinctions. Evidence: 1. Although the geological record contains some hints of major meteor impacts preceding mass extinctions, there were many extinctions that did not follow any known major meteor impacts. 2. There are many records of major meteor impacts that do not seem to have been followed by mass extinctions. The author assumes that because there are extinctions, in (1), that were not preceded by major meteor impacts and that there are, in (2), major meteor impacts that were not followed by mass extinctions, that the geological record suggests that there is no consistent causal link between major meteor impacts and mass extinctions. Choice A: Since, per (2), not all major meteor impacts have been followed by mass extinctions, then, based on the contrapositive of this choice, there is not a consistent causal link between major meteor impacts and mass extinctions. Choice A is correct. |
| People who do not believe that others distrust them are confident in their own abilities, so people who tend to trust others think of a difficult task as a challenge rather than a threat, since this is precisely how people who are confident in their own abilities regard such tasks. The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following is assumed? a) People who believe that others distrust them tend to trust others. b) Confidence in one's own abilities gives one confidence in the trustworthiness of others. c) People who tend to trust others do not believe that others distrust them. d) People who are not threatened by difficult tasks tend to find such tasks challenging. e) People tend to distrust those who they believe lack self-confidence. | Explanation Statements: 1.People who do not believe that others distrust them are confident in their own abilities. 2.Treating a difficult task as a challenge rather than a threat is precisely how people who are confident in their own abilities regard such tasks. 3.Conclusion: People who tend to trust others think of a difficult task as a challenge rather than a threat. Since this is formal logic stated informally, these statements can be symbolized as follows: 1.~ believe others distrust them ⇒ confident in own abilities 2.confident in own abilities ⇒ treat difficult task as challenge and ~ treat difficult tasks as threat 3.Conclusion: tend to trust others ⇒ treat difficult task as challenge and ~ treat difficult task as threat (1) and (2) allow us to infer that those who do not believe others distrust them treat difficult tasks as challenges and not as a threat (~ believe others distrust them ⇒ treat difficult task as challenge and ~ treat difficult task as threat). For the conclusion to be valid there must be a relationship between those who tend to trust others, in (3), and those who do not believe others distrust them, in (1). The two groups are not equivalent to each other, so the answer should state a relationship between the two: Those who tend to trust others do not believe that others distrust them (tend to trust others ⇒ ~ believe other distrust them). Choice C paraphrases this, and is therefore correct. |
| Anthropologists assert that cultures advance only when independence replaces dependence that is, only when imposition by outsiders is replaced by initiative from within. In other words, the natives of a culture are the only ones who can move that culture forward. Non-natives may provide valuable advice, but any imposition of their views threatens independence and thus progress. If one looks at individual schools as separate cultures, therefore, the key to educational progress is obvious. Which one of the following best completes the passage? a) Individual schools must be independent of outside imposition b) Some schools require more independence than others, depending on the initiative of their staffs and students c) School system officials must tailor their initiatives for change to each individual school in the system d) Outsiders must be prevented from participation in schools' efforts to advance e) The more independent a school is, the more educational progress it will make | A Explanation Anthropologists assertions: 1.Cultures advance only when independence replaces dependence. 2.Cultures advance only when imposition by outsiders is replaced by initiative from within. 3.The natives of a culture are the only ones who can move that culture forward. 4.Non-natives may provide valuable advice. 5.Any imposition of non-natives' views threatens independence and thus progress. Advancement occurs when independence and initiative from within replace dependence and imposition by outsiders. Only natives can move a culture forward (make it progress). Any imposition threatens progress. The correct answer will complete the assertion at the end of the prompt, which offers the key to educational progress (if one looks at individual schools as separate cultures). Choice A: Any outside imposition threatens progress, independence must replace dependence, and only natives can make a culture (school) progress. Therefore, the key to progress involves individual schools being independent of outside imposition.Choice A is correct. |