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elaborative rehearsal strategy that involves thinking about the material in a more meaningful way and associating it with other knowledge that is already in long term memory (the more deeply you process something the more likely you are to recall it at a later time) Craik & Tulving showed subjects list of words & asked for 1. simple visual judgement (basic & required no thought about the words) 2. acoustic judgment that required them to pronounce letters as words 3. complex semantic judgment (subjects had to think about meaning of words -words that were processed at a deep level were more easily recognized later Bloom & Mudd displayed series of faces and asked subjects to make superficial judgments (boy/girl) or complex (is this honest face or dishonest?) -those that had to answer complex questions were more likely to recognize faces later over learning rehearsing material even after it seems to be mastered spacing effect LTM is better when practice is spread over a long period of time instead of crammed Bahrick & Hall found adults retain more high school math skills when they had practiced the math in college (spacing effect) Hasher & Zacks study proving automatic processing- some people told they would have to recall info later and others were not told...results were the same two forms of long term memory? semantic & visual Jacqueline Sachs experiment where subjects listened to tape recording... she then gave them sentences & asked if it was the same as orignal passage. -subjects rejected sentences that changed meaning but not ones with same meaning but different wording (they had stored semantic content, not word-for-word) verbal information is stored in what form? semantic visual inputs are stored as visual images (visual coding) visual coding a mental picture is generated of an object or scene Stephen Kosslyn showed subjects picture of boat, then asked to visualize the drawing and tell whether or not a specific object was present..also found visual cortex was activated when they visualized what is the best way to remember something? encode in semantically and visually two types of LTM? procedural memory & declarative memory procedural memory consists of our stored knowledge of learned habits and skills (how to drive, swim, type, ride a bike, ect.) declarative memory consists of semantic memories for facts about the world(who michael jordan is) and episodic memories that we have about ourself (parents, where we went to school, ect.) people with amnesia don't have which type of long term memory? declarative memory (but can retain many skills they had previously learned-procedural) semantic networks complex web of semantic associations that link items in memory such that retreiving one time triggers the retrieval of others as well when a memory is primed it means? the likelihood that the memory will be retreived with another is increased lexical decision making people are given a string of letters and must decide if they are a word...people make decisions more quickly if letter string comes after a sematically related word than an unrelated word (they would decide fire when it proceeded red more than if it proceeded clouds) James McConnell said he transferred memory from one worm to another, but no one could reproduce results Penfield triggered long-forgotten memories in humans through direct brain stimulation engram term used to describe a physical memory trace Karl Lashley had rats that ran mazes, took out parts of the brain to see if it affected memory- they would always remember some of what they learned...concluded memories do not reside in any specific part of the brain H.M. man who had brain surgery for epileptic seizures- removed hippocampus & parts of temporal lobes..controlled seizures but he had anterograde amnesia -could not retain new info hippocampus portion of brain in limbic sys that plays kep role in encoding & transferring memory to LTM retrograde amnesia inability to retreive LTM from the past anterograde amnesia inability to form new LTM Philip Hilts wrote memory ghost- tells about HM's story Postle & Corkin tested HM to see if performance in verbal task was primed by prior exposure to certain words -was influenced by words common before his amnesia, but not words common after his amnesia HM's case revealed the hippocampus is essential for explicit recollection of newly aquired info what neurotransmitter plays an important role in memory acetylcholine (ACH) - alzheimer's disease people have lowered levels epinephrine home that is released during times of stress Herman Ebbinghaus first to realize a memory can exist without awareness explicit memory describes the recollections of facts and events that people try to retrieve in response to direct question implicit memory describes the retention of info without awareness, as measured by it's indirect effects on performance free-recall test test of explicit memory where person is asked to reproduce info without benefit of external clues recognition test test that requires you to select a remembered item from a list of alternatives (word bank/multiple choice) Bahrick proved people remember better with a recognition test than free recall why is recognition easier than recall? becuase retrieval clues/ reminders are present encoding specificity (tulving) any stimulus that is encoded with an experience can later trigger one's memory of that experience context-dependent theory people would find it easier to retrieve info if they were in the same situation in which the info was obtained in the first place Diane ackerman coined term "aromatic memories"--smells remind you of certain experiences state-dependent theory it's often easier to recall something when our state of mind is the same at testing as it was during encoding Eric Eich found it helps to be memory tested in the same place where you learned it because the environment is likely to take you back to the same mood state (which serves as a retrieval clue) Claparéde encounter with young woman (korsakoffs syndrome- brain disorder that impairs transfer of info into LTM- pricked her hand..when he came back she did not remember himbut did not want to touch his hand (retained info long enough to use it just didn't realize it) amnesics often show signs of? long term retention of memory without awareness deja vu the illusion that a new situation is familiar (french for "already seen")- opposite of amnesia four consequences of retention without awareness? 1. false-fame effect. 2. illusion of truth 3. eyewitness transference 4. unintentional plagiarism false-fame effect if the name rings a bell, the person must be famous illusion of truth if you say something often enough enough people will believe it eyewitness transference a person seen in one situation is later confused in memory or "transferred" to another situation unintentional plagiarism (cryptomnesia) when you think you have insight that is original but it actually came from another source unconsciously William James said "if we remembered everything, we should on most occasions be as ill off as if we remembered nothing" Who was S. the man who could not forget things..was too distracting Ebbinghaus found there was a steep loss of retention within the first hour, and that he forgot more than 60% within nine hours, and rate of forgetting leveled off after that forgetting curve rate at which things are forgotten...steep decline in first day then levels off Bahrick tested english adults that took spanish in highschool... said knowledge may enter a permastore/ permanent, very-long-term memory for well-learned material what four things cause you to forget? lack of encoding, decay(info is not in LTM storage), interference, or repression(memory may exist, but is difficult or impossible to retreive) how do you forget through encoding? ex. penny...everyday object you don't need to know fine details you only need to know difference between penny & other coins..so it's not ever encoded into LTM change blindness failure to detect changes that take place in their presence Simons & Leven experiment with asking college student for directions..only 7 out of 15 noticed the person changed behind the door Jenkins & Dallenbach found key blow to decay theory- "forgetting is not so much a matter of decay of old impressions & associations, but of interference, inhibition, or obliteration of old by new" forgetting by decay memory traces erode with the passage of time interferrence theory of forgetting something learned may be forgotten due to interference from other info two kinds of interference proactive & retroactive proactive interference prior info inhibits one's ability to recall something new Benton Underwood found that the more nonesense syllable experiments subjects had taken part in the more forgetting they exhibited in a new study retroactive interference new material disrupts memory for previously learned info forgetting by repression an unconscious defense mechanism that keeps painful personal memories under lock and key & out of awareness remembering an active process in which we reconstruct memories according to our beliefs, wishes, needs and info received from outside sources Frederick Bartlett asked students to recall folk story- they correctly recalled the gist of the story but they changed, exaggerated, added or omitted certain details schema preconceptions people have about persons and situations -distort memories, often leading us to fill in missing pieces thoery of reconstructive memory by Loftus (studied eyewitness testimony) -after people observe an event, later info about the event (true or not) becomes integrated into the fabric of their memory misinformation effect tendency to incorporate false post event info into one's memory of the event itself -subjects often quick to respond and and confident in the accuracy of these false memories Marigold Linton kept extensive diary and later used to test her memory for the events of her life -found unique events were easy to recall but routines were quickly forgotten autobiographical memory the recollections people have of the experiences that have touched their lives most people report more events that recent than events that are distant. what are the two exceptions? 1. older adults retrieve an unusually large amount of personal memories from teen & early adulthood b/c early years are busy & formative in one's life 2. people are quick to remember transitional "firsts" what types of things serve as refrence points to organize our personal memories? important events like weddings, birthdays, deaths, accidents, injuries, sports, romantic encounters, vacations, graduations, ect. flashbulb memories highly vivid and enduring memories, typically for events dramatic and emotional -triggered by events that are new, important, surprising, or emotional to someone childhood amnesia the inability of most people to recall events before the age of 3 or 4 memory is shaped by the social self in what two ways? egocentric (self inflated-we see ourself as the lead in the story) and hindsight bais hindsight bias tendency to think after an event that we knew in advance what was going to happen