7 Cognitive Psychology E2

5 Written Questions

1. -between imaging processes & seeing
   
   1. Higher activity in occipital lobe and posterior cortex during imagery tasks (including dreaming), based on:
   
   a-Cerebral blood flow (Roland & Friberg, 1985; (but not during mental arithmetic or imaging a tune)
   -either way you do math, you do it mentally, and occipital lobe will light up
   -sometimes, when you are imaging a tune, your auditory cortex will light up. For ex: if you are listening to a song on the radio and it cuts off, you will keep singing the song, if you know it
   
   b-PET Scans (Goldenberg et al., 1990; Kosslyn et al., 1993) - will use more glucose
   *visual questions caused occipital cortex to light up, but factual/imperative questions did not
   *can also use fMRI
   
   ex: Pine trees a darker green than grass?
   -you have to generate an image of both to know which is darker.
   ex(p2): Is the categorical imperative an ancient grammatical form?
   -this question does not make you generate an image
   
   2. Creation of visual images activates occipital lobe (Kosslyn & Ochsner, 1994); Kosslyn, Thompson, Kim, & Alpert, 1995).
   
   **Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to area 17 interrupts imaging (Kosslyn et al., 1999).
   
   3. Many Agnosia patients (like John and L.H.) report that they don't dream, and can't image; those with achromatopsia report that they don't image in color (Farah)
   -parallel deficits in imaging and perception for many patients (ex. Oliver sachs who mistook his wife for a hat)
   4. Many Hemispatial neglect patients also "neglect" the left side of space in their images.
2. (Kosslyn, Reiser, Farah, Fliegel, 1983)
   
   -a. Takes longer to construct more detailed images, or those described as having more parts, e.g., "two overlapping rectangles" vs. "five squares in form of a cross"
   
   Or,
   -----Four columns of dots, 3 per column, vs. Three rows of dots, 4 per row
   
   
   -b. The smaller the image size (or smaller the part/detail asked about), the longer the RT
   
   --does a rabbit have ears, vs.does a rabbit have whiskers? (more obvious in our image generation that a rabbit has ears)
   
   (also structural equivalence)
3. -Elements of an experimental situation that might cause a participant to perceive the situation in a certain way or become aware of the purpose of the study and thus bias the participant to behave in a certain way, and in so doing, distort results.
4. (part of spatial equivalence)
   
   -Kosslyn: image & perception share a "visual buffer"
   a. Brooks (1968)
   --Visual/Verbal Task x Visual/Verbal Response
   
   RT (in sec) as a function of Task x Response Mode
   *table shown with this info*
   *(also implicit encoding of spatial information)*
5. -the structure of Images is like that of actual perceived objects, and can be re-organized & re-interpreted.
   
   -Images are analogous to 2-1/2 D sketches.
   --Images are assembled; assembly based on description (and interpretation) of component parts
   --more complex images take longer to generate

5 Matching Questions

1. transformational equivalence
2. propositions
3. spatial equivalence
4. parallel processing
5. Indeterminacy

1. a -Represents like pictures (not like sentences).
   -Location, size, and distance are arranged in an image as they are in physical space.
   --spatial relations among objects in an array are preserved
   
   --1) Intramodal Interference
   ------Kosslyn: image & perception share a "visual buffer"
   --------a. Brooks (1968)
   ----------Visual/Verbal Task x Visual/Verbal Response
2. b -Images leave out significant details, and cannot be re-analyzed for those details the way that pictures can.
   *E.g., image of a tiger does not specify an exact number of stripes
3. c -A term used in logic to describe the content of assertions. Assertions are non-linguistic abstractions from sentences and can be evaluated as either true or false.
   -The nature of ____________ is highly controversial amongst philosophers, many of whom are skeptical about the existence of _____________.
   -Many logicians prefer to avoid use of the term, in favour of using sentences
4. d -The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 210)
5. e -images can be scanned, rotated, etc. in the same way as actual pictures or spatial stimuli
   E.g., "mentally" walking around one's house
   1. Mental Rotation
   a. Letter Rotation
   --when NOT told to use imagery (Cooper & Shepard, 1973)
   
   ***pictured: normal F and rotated F***
   
   --when told explicitly to use imagery (Cooper, 1976): start rotating figure; closer the second letter was to calculated orientation, faster the RT.
   b. Block Figures Rotation in 2- and 3-dimensions (Shepard & Metzler, 1971)
   
   ***pictured: 3D block configurations***
   
   c. Polygon rotation independent of stimulus complexity (Cooper, 1975)

5 Multiple Choice Questions

1. States that imagery is like perception, in that images retain some of the sensory qualities of perception.
   
   -There is a more or less direct relationship between representation and referent.
   -Spatial relationships are also directly captured.
   -Relations represented implicitly.
   -Different kind of representation for each sense.
   1. image generation
   2. analogical representation
   3. serial processing
   4. mental rotation
2. ??
   1. structural equivalence
   2. perceptual equivalence
   3. perceptual reference frame
   4. intramodal interference
3. A. Theoretical Claims:
   1. ALL information stored in Propositional codes
   --sentence-like: CHASED (Dog, Cat)
   
   --it is these propositional codes which do all the work when we answer visual-spatial questions?
   
   2. All spatial information must be Explicitly represented, or able to be inferred from other explicitly-stated propositions:
   BEHIND (Jim, Todd)
   BEHIND (Annie, Jim)
   Therefore, .....
   
   
   3. All information stored is conceptually dependent.
   -E.g., Piaget's children without knowledge of
   Geocentric levels in tilted beaker experiment
   
   4. Epiphenomenalism: though people may have a subjective experience of having generated an image, the image itself is non-causal to being able to answer an imagery-type question
   1. propositions
   2. mental rotation
   3. perceptual equivalence
   4. conceptual-propositional theory
4. -spatial relations can be implicitly represented in a picture/ image (without explicit attention ever having been paid to the spatial relations).
   1. implicit encoding
   2. image scanning
   3. serial processing
   4. propositions
5. -imaging is like seeing (with a "mind's eye"); the same 'visual screen' is used
   1. Perky's (1910) tomato/leaf/banana experiment
   
   2. Farah (1985), like Perky (1910), found that Ss found it easier to perceive a low-contrast letter (an H or a T) if they had been imaging that letter.
   1. perceptual equivalence
   2. spatial equivalence
   3. structural equivalence
   4. functional equivalence

5 True/False Questions

1. image scanning → **key idea: images can be scanned, in much the same way as physical percepts can be
   - imaginal scanning is functionally equivalent to peceptual scanning
   
   -Kosslyn's experiment: participants were shown a map of an imaginary island, participants studied until they can reproduce it accurately from memory
   -instructed that on hearing name of an object on the island, they should picture the map, mentally scan directly to the mentioned object, and finally press a key as soon as they arrived at the location of the named object
   • Results: almost perfect linear relationship between the distances separating successive pairs of objects in the mental map and the amount of time it took participants to press the button
   • -in other words, participants seem to have encoded the map in the form of an image

   True        False

2. mental imagery → -A task in which participants are presented with a rotated figure and must discern whether the figure is normal or, say, mirror-reversed. Participants apparently must visualize the figure rotated to an upright position before responding.
   -The response time is linear with how many degrees the subject has to mentally rotate the pictures (i.e., the less necessary the rotation, the quicker the response time)
   - (Shephard)

   True        False

3. quasi-picture view → -The steps in the processing of sensory information that operate sequentially, an item at a time, on the available sensory information.

   True        False

4. mental rotation → -A task in which participants are presented with a rotated figure and must discern whether the figure is normal or, say, mirror-reversed. Participants apparently must visualize the figure rotated to an upright position before responding.
   -The response time is linear with how many degrees the subject has to mentally rotate the pictures (i.e., the less necessary the rotation, the quicker the response time)
   - (Shephard)

   True        False

5. serial processing → -The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 210)

   True        False