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Ptolemy believed the earth was at the center of everything Five major powers Prussia, Austria(hapsburgs), Russia, France, Britain Russia large population, lost of land, good economy, lots of resources Peter the Great brings them into the 'modern' era making them a major power. Have access to asia and the east Reasons Spain became militarized in the 1700s muslims reach spain it takes them until about 1420 to push them out constantly fighting 1100s no more use of slaves in western europe 1400s took until now for slaves to stop being used in spain and portugal Why spain is backward and falls behind didn't focus on developing industries because they were getting money from their new world settlements due to conquistadors. use their gold and silver to live in splendor (spanish armada, catholic armies, etc) why france and england do become major powers focus was on commerce rather then military expansion. They don't rely on gold and silver as much. Voltaire Pseudonym of French philosopher and satirist Francois Marie Arouet, who championed the cause of human dignity against state and church oppression. Noted Deist and author of Candide. The Encyclopedia Joint venture of French philosophe writers, helmed by Denis Diderot (1713-1784) which proposed to summarize all modern knowledge. Adam Smith (1723-1790) Scottish economist who proposed that individual self-interest naturally promoted a healthy national economy. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1718-1778) Radical political theorist whose The Social Contract attacked privilege and inequality. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman Noted work of Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), English republican who applied Enlightenment political ideas to issues of gender. salons Informal gatherings of intellectuals and aristocrats that allowed the discourse of Enlightenment ideas. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) Austrian child prodigy and composer of instrumental music and operas. Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) Polish astronomer who advanced the radical idea that the earth moved around the sun in De Revolutionibus. Johannes Kepler (1571-1601) Elaborated on and corrected Copernicus's theory, particularly about planetary orbits. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Italian physicist and inventor. The implication of his ideas raised the ire of the Catholic Church, and he was forced to retract most of his findings. Discourse on Method Philosophical treatise by Rene Descartes (1596-1650) proposing that the path to knowledge was through logical speculation, beginning with one's own self: "I think, therefore I am." Novum Organum Work by English statesman and scientist Francis Bacon (1561-1626) that advanced a philosophy of study through observation. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) English scientist and mathematician, noted for his work on calculus and the properties of light. Louis XIV (1638-1715) The "Sun King," known for his opulent court lifestyle and absolutist political style. deprived the nobility of power but increased their social prestige (Versailles) William and Mary (1650-1702 and 1662-1694) Dutch noble couple who supplanted the deposed, Catholic King James II in 1688 as monarchs of England. Two Treatises on Government work by John Locke (1632-1704) that defended humans' right to freedom against absolutist ideas. Treaty of Utrecht 1713 resolution to the War of Spanish Succession that redistributed territory among the warring nations of Europe and encouraged England's colonial conquests. Versailles Splendid palace outside Paris where Louis XIV and his nobles resided. Frederick the Great (1740-1786) Successor to absolutist Elector Frederick William of Prussia who engaged the nobility in maintaining a strong military and bureaucratic. He also encouraged Enlightenment rationalism and artistic endeavors. the army was staffed by nobles Peter the Great (1672-1725) Energetic tsar who undertook a modernization campaign to make Russia a competitive world power. (r. 1689-1725): forced his nobles into lifelong government service Catherine the Great (1729-1796) German-born empress of Russia who maintained an absolutist, feudal system but encouraged Enlightenment philosophy and the arts at court. (r. 1762-1796): nobility surrendered administrative and political power into the empress's hands "triangular" trade Commercial Atlantic shipping pattern that took rum from New England to Africa, traded it for slaves taken to the West Indies, and brought sugar back to New England to be processed into rum. Louis XVI (1754-1793) Well-meaning but ineffectual king of France, finally deposed and executed with his family by revolutionaries. Third Estate Delegates from the common class to the Estates General, the French legislature, whose refusal to capitulate to the nobility and clergy in 1789 predicated the Revolution. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Revolutionary Document issued in 1789 outlining Enlightenment ideals of equality, freedom, and tolerance. Olympe de Gouges (1745-1793) French political radical and feminist, whose Declaration of the Rights of Women and Citizen demanded an equal place for women in the new French republic. Jacobins Parisian faction of republican leaders who came to power in 1792. Committee of Public Safety Jacobin leaders who enforced party rule by executing thousands of dissidents September 1793-July 1794. St. Domingue Former Caribbean French colony, site of slave rebellion in 1791 which embroiled English and French forces until 1804, whne it was declared independent nation of Haiti. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) French general who seized power as dictator 1799-1814. After successful conquest of much of Europe, defeated by Russian and Prussian forces and died in exile. Lycees system of high schools instituted by Napoleon, part of his domestic reform campaign. Absolutist control Command of the state's army Control over the legal system Right to collect and spend the state's financial resources The need to create an efficient centralized bureaucracy Weakening privileged "special interests" Obstacles to absolutism Legally-privileged estates of the nobility and clergy The political authority of semi-autonomous regions Interference of parliaments, diets, and estates general Alternatives to Absolutism Limited monachy (england) Absolutism Condemned by Locke Government is instituted to protect life, liberty, and property A political theory that encouraged rulers to claim complete sovereignty within their territories Sometimes defined by "divine right" The Act of Succession (1701) Ordained that every future English monarch must be a member of the Church of England John Locke (1632-1704) Two Treatises of Government (1690) The state of nature: Absolute freedom and equality No government The only law is the law of nature The individual enforces his own natural right to life, liberty, and property Civil society: The inconveniences of nature outweigh its advantages Humans establish a civil society based on absolute equality Set up a government to arbitrate all disputes All powers not surrendered to the government were reserved for the people themselves Governmental authority is contractual and conditional Absolutism: Condemned by Locke Government is instituted to protect life, liberty, and property Absolutism of Louis XIV Nobles were required to live at Versailles for part of the years Raised their prestige Louis could keep an eye on them Collection of taxes necessary to maintain a large standing army (very expensive) Never called the Estates-General (last convoked in 1614) determined to impose religious unity on France (God would favor him) Louis revokes the Edict of Nantes 1685 Protestant clerics were exiled Laymen were sent to the galleys as slaves Children were forcibly baptized as Catholics 200,000 Protestants flee to England, Holland, Germany, and America Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683) Louis XIV's finance minister, 1664-1683 The Nine Years' War (1689-1697) Fought mostly in the Low Countries 1697: Peace of Ryswick Louis returns most territory except Strasbourg and parts of Alsace Treaty recognized William of Orange as king of England Peace of Ryswick 1697 recognized William of Orange as king of England League of Augsburg organized by William of Orange Holland, England, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, the Rhine Palatinate, and Austrian Hapsburgs against France Beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession Louis sought a French claim to the throne of Spain Louis marries eldest daughter of Philip IV of Spain Philip's youngest daughter marries Leopold I of Austria Charles II leaves his possessions to Louis XIV's grandson, Philip of Anjou (the will was secret) Philip was to renounce his claim to the French throne keeping the Spanish empire intact Charles II dies, Philip V (r. 1700-1746) proclaimed the king of Spain Louis XIV rushes his troops into the Spanish Netherlands The War of Spanish Succession England, the United Provinces, Austria, and Prussia against France, Bavaria, and Spain French defeat at Blenheim (1704) English navy captures Gibraltar and Minorca 1709: France on the verge of defeat The Treaty of Utrecht Philip V remained on the throne of Spain and retained its colonial empire Louis agrees that France and Spain would never unite under the same ruler Austria gains territories in the Spanish Netherlands and Italy The Dutch were guaranteed protection of their borders from French invasion Great Britain as greatest winner: Kept Gibraltar and Minorca Obtained large chunks of French territory in the New World Extracted from Spain the right to transport and sell African slaves in Spanish America The Hapsburg empire 1683: Ottoman Turks assault Vienna, then their power in southeastern Europe declines Austria reconquers most of Hungary from the Ottomans (1699) Controls all of Hungary, Transylvania, and Serbia (1718) Acquires Silesia from Poland (1722) Hungary as buffer state Vienna emerges as cultural capital of Europe Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780) and Joseph II (r.1765-1790) Pioneered "enlightened absolutism" Centralized administration in Vienna Increased taxation creating a large standing army Tightened control over the church Statewide system of education, relaxed censorship, abolished serfdom, liberal criminal code building Brandenburg-Prussia Prussia a composite state Two main holdings: Brandenburg and duchy of East Prussia Dominant military power in central Europe Frederick William the "Great Elector" (r.1640-1688) Frederick I (r.1688-1713) Frederick William I (r.1713-1740) Frederick the Great (r.1740-1786) Frederick William the "Great Elector" (r.1640-1688) Diplomatic triumphs Built a huge standing army Granted Junkers (powerful nobles) the right to enserf peasants Junkers staffed the army, immune from taxation Junkers surrendered management of the state to a centralized bureaucracy Frederick William I (r.1713-1740) Returned to policies of the "Great Elector" Built a first-rate army (the "sergeant king") The "Potsdam Giants" Increased taxes and shunned expensive luxuries of the court Frederick the Great (r.1740-1786) Prussia as a major power Mobilized the army and occupied Silesia Gained the support of the Junkers for his policies An "enlightened absolutist": Social reforms Prohibited torture and bribing of judges System of elementary education Encouraged toleration toward Christians Fostered scientific forestry and cultivation of new crops Peter the Great (1672-1725) Policies were decisive in making Russia a Great European power Peter comes to the throne as a young boy Overthrows regency of Sophia (1689) Travels to Holland and England to study shipbuilding and recruit skilled workers The Streltsy rebellion: crushes the rebellion with savagery Western influences:published a book of manners Goals: make russia a military power direct control over the Russian Orthodox church Russian peasants legally the property of their masters (1649) The Duma is replaced by nine administrators Peter the Great's foreign policy Goal was to secure warm-water ports on the Black and Baltic Seas Begins a war with Sweden (1700-1721) Secures the Gulf of Finland Begins building St. Petersburg Peace of Nystad (1721): Realignment of power in eastern Europe Gulf of Finland, Livonia, and Estonia pass to Russia Catherine the Great (r.1762-1796) Came to the throne after Tsar Peter III was deposed and executed in a palace coup War with the Ottoman Turks - Russia won the northern Black Sea and secured the independence of Crimea Russian gains alarmed Austria The Partition of Poland (1772) The Partition of Poland (1795) protoindustrialization Entrepreneurs and the "putting-out" system Employment during slack agricultural season Avoided expensive guild restrictions Reduced levels of capital investment Materialism A mass market for consumer goods (especially northwestern Europe) Houses of ordinary people filled with luxuries (sugar, teas, books, toys, china, razors) Demand outstripped supply Encouraged the provision of services Golden age of the small shopkeeper English colonialism American colonies offered no significant mineral wealth Profits obtained through agricultural settlements Jamestown, Virginia (1607) Plymouth, Massachusetts (1620) Escaping religious persecution No attempts made to Christianize Native Americans English settlements were privately organized Navigation Acts (1651 and 1660) All exports from English colonies to England must be carried by English ships Sugar and tobacco Colonies established as joint-stock companies or proprietary colonies Planned settlements and plantations Replicating English life Primarily agricultural communities No need to control large native labor force Their goal was exclusive control of native lands Expulsion and massacre of native populations Rare incidence of intermarriage Rigid racial divisions Plymouth, Massachusetts (1620) Escaping religious persecution No attempts made to Christianize Native Americans Navigation Acts (1651 and 1660) All exports from English colonies to England must be carried by English ships French colonialism Encouraged sugar trade in the West Indies French fur traders occupied the interior of North America Preached Christianity to Native Americans Dutch colonialism "fort and factory" model of the Portuguese Dutch east India Company (founded 1602) Controlled spice trade in Sumatra, Borneo, and the Moluccas Secured an exclusive right to trade with Japan The joint-stock company Raised cash by selling shares in their enterprise to investors The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) Ended in stalemate Indian mercenaries employed by the East India Company eliminated French competitors The British capture Louisbourg and Quebec The Treaty of Paris (1763) France surrenders Canada and India to the British The American Revolution To pay for the cost of war, Britain increased taxes in the American colonies Colonists complained they had no representatives in Parliament -- taxation without consent George III -- vacillation and force The Boston Tea Party (1773) The Continental Congress at Philadelphia (1774) Lexington and Concord (April 1775) Independence (July 4, 1776) France sides with the colonists (1778) British surrender at Yorktown, Virginia (1781) Scientific revolution 3 ideas A body of knowledge A method of inquiry A community of practitioners and institutions Scientific Revolution Heliocentricity A new mathematical physics New Method of inquiry Science as a distinctive branch of knowledge Natural philosophy - the philosophy of nature medieval science Authority of the ancients: Aristotle and Ptolemy Heavenly bodies orbit in a hierarchy of spheres Heavens and earth composed of different matter The "quintessence" (the ether) Earth, air, fire and water The "prime mover" late Middle Age science ideas Ptolemaic system did not conform to observations Retrograde motion Roman calendar out of alignment with movement of heavenly bodies The "problem" of Easter and other holy days Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543) Renaissance man Ptolemaic system had become too messy Copernican system The earth moved and was not the center of the planetary system The earth rotated on its axis and orbited the sun Believed he had restored a pure understanding of God's plan but was troubled by its implications New problems and inconsistencies On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies (1543) 1543 Copernicus On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) Danish nobility A champion of observation Observed the appearance of a new star (nova) in 1572 Built his own observatory Tycho not a Copernican Planets orbited the sun, the whole of which orbited a stationary earth Court astronomer to Rudolph II at Prague Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Served as Tycho's assistant Everything had been created according to mathematical laws Mathematics as the language of God Mathematical perfection and musical harmonies Three laws of planetary motion Planets travel in elliptical orbits Speed of the planets varied with their distance from the sun Magnetic forces kept the planets in orbital motion Cosmographic Mystery (1596) New Astronomy or Celestial Physics (1609) The Harmonies of the World (1619) Broke down the distinctions between the heavens and the earth Kepler's laws of planetary motion Planets travel in elliptical orbits Speed of the planets varied with their distance from the sun Magnetic forces kept the planets in orbital motion Galileo's telescope built in 1610 Observed the features of the moon, the moons of Jupiter and sun spots A challenge to heavenly perfection The Starry Messenger (1610) Galileo built telescope in 1610 Took a position as tutor to the Medicis conflict with the church The theory of inertia Law of falling bodies Two New Sciences (1638) Combined discovery, observation, experiment and mathematics Suggested universal laws of motion The new science moves out of Italy to Northwest Europe Galileo's conflict with the church A Dominican monk denounced his ideas as a dangerous deviation Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina de Medici (1615) - One can be a sincere Copernican and a Catholic Understanding the physical world is best left to the natural philosopher 1616: the Inquisition declares heretical the proposition that the earth moves - Copernicus's De Revolutionibus is placed on the Index of Forbidden Books A Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632) Inquisition banned the book ordered to stand trial in 1633 Recanted his beliefs and placed under house arrest for life Francis Bacon (1561-1626) New confidence in the potential of human thought Lord Chancellor to James I The "ancients" and "moderns" Separation of scientific investigation from philosophical argument The inductive method Combining evidence from observations to draw general conclusions Cooperation between researchers "Useful" knowledge Great Instauration (1620) The New Atlantis (1626) Solomon's House Rene Descartes (1596-1650) The Discourse on Method (1637) Began as an essay on optics, geometry and meteorology Systematic doubt of everything Cogito ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am") The thinking person exists, reasons exists, God exists The deductive method A "fresh start for knowledge" Proceed logically from one certainty to another Mathematical thought an expression of the highest standards of reason A mechanical philosophy Nature as machine Rejected the medieval distinction between the works of man and those of nature Toward a new conception of matter Nature and natural laws The Cartesians Mostly France and Holland Mathematics and logic Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Probability theory Theology Christian Huygens (1629-1695) The problem of impact and orbital motion Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) Applied geometry to ethics The Baconians Began with practical research Sought empirical laws based on evidence William Harvey (1578-1657) The circulation of blood Dissected live animals Robert Boyle (1627-1691) Boyle's law Robert Hooke (1635-1703) Introduced the microscope The cellular structure of plants Science and society The Royal Society (charter granted 1662) French Academy of Sciences (1666) Women in science Margaret Cavendish I1623-1673) Maria Winkelmann (1670-1720) Refused admission to Berlin Academy of Science Maria Sibylla Merian (1647-1717) Studied entomology Isaac Newton, 1643-1727 Optics Used prisms to demonstrate that light was composed of different-colored rays Mathematics Integral and differential calculus Gravity The falling apple Reflective telescope Elected to the Royal Society (1672) Principia Mathematica ( Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) The General Scholium (1713) -answered objections to the Principia Principia Mathematica ( Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) Published in 1687 (prompted by Edmund Halley) A long and difficult work Gravitation was a universal force that could be expressed mathematically Built upon the work of Galileo, Kepler, Boyle, Descartes and Hooke A single, descriptive account of mass and motion The laws of gravitation Enlightenment The power of human reason Self-confidence Newtonian methods had wide application "Dare to know!" (Kant) Reason needed autonomy and freedom The "Holy Trinity:" Bacon, Newton and Locke Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) The organization of knowledge The scientific method Collected evidence on the rise and fall of nations Compared government constitutions The "cultural project" of the Enlightenment Practical, applied knowledge Spreading knowledge and free public discussion "To change the common way of thinking" (Diderot) Writing for a larger audience Academies sponsored prize essay contests The expansion of literacy The first "public sphere" Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) Education and environment Sense perception and the tabula rasa The goodness and perfectibility of humanity Moral improvement and social progress Voltaire (1694-1778) born François Marie Arouet personification of the Enlightenment Great admirer and popularizer of all things English (especially Newton and Locke) Philosophical Letters (1734) Écrasez l'infâme -- "crush infamy" (all forms of repression, fanaticism and bigotry) Loathed religious bigotry Did not oppose religion -- sought to rescue morality from narrow dogma Common sense and simplicity Contacts with Frederick of Prussia and Catherine the Great Philosophical Letters (1734) Religious and political liberties of the British British open-mindedness and empiricism Admiration for English culture and politics and respect given to scientists Balance to British government British checked arbitrary power Religious toleration Observations on England as criticism of France Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) Served as magistrate in the Parlement of Bordeaux The Persian Letters (1721) The Spirit of the Laws (1748) The Persian Letters (1721) Series of letters between two Persian visitors to France Likened French absolutism to Persian despotism Thinly veiled criticism of France The Spirit of the Laws (1748) A work in comparative historical sociology Newtonian in its empirical approach How do structures and institutions shape laws? Different forms of government -- what spirit characterized them? Republic -- virtue Monarchy -- honor Despotism -- fear Spelled out the dangerous drift toward despotism in France Admired the British system of separate and balanced powers (exec/jud/leg) Checks and balances Diderot The Encyclopedia A vast compendium of human knowledge Grandest statement of the philosophes' goals Scientific analysis applied to human reason -- happiness and progress The Encyclopedia Guided by Denis Diderot (1713-1784) and Jean d'Alembert (1717-1783) 17 large volumes of text, 11 volumes of illustrations (1751-1772) Purpose was to change the general way of thinking Demonstrating how the application of science could promote progress Heavy circulation despite the high price Government revoked permission to publish for trying to "propagate materialism" (1759) Enlightenment themes humanitarianism and toleration Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) On Crimes and Punishments (1764) On Crimes and Punishments (1764) General themes: arbitrary power, reason and human dignity Attacked the view that punishment represented society's vengeance on the criminal Legitimate rationale for punishment was to maintain social order, prevent other crimes Opposed torture and the death penalty Gotthold Lessing (1729-1781) Treated Jews sympathetically Nathan the Wise (1779) Three great monotheistic religions are three versions of the same truth Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) Took up the question of Jewish identity On the Religious Authority of Judaism (1783) Defended Jewish communities against anti-Semitic policies The French Physiocrats Mercantilist policies were misguided Real wealth comes from land and agricultural production; advocated a simplified tax system Laissez-faire -- wealth and goods to circulate without government interference Laissez-faire - wealth and goods to circulate without government interference Adam Smith (1723-1790) Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) Disagreed with the centrality of agriculture Central issue was the productivity of human labor Mercantile restrictions did not create real economic health The "invisible hand" of the marketplace Rational individuals should pursue their interests rationally The stages of economic growth Following the "obvious and simple system of natural liberty" Abbé Guillaume Thomas Francois Raynal Philosophical History . . . of Europeans in the Two Indies (1770) A total history of colonization, natural history, exploration and commerce Industry and trade bring improvement and progress Condemned the Spanish in Mexico and Peru, the Portuguese in Brazil, the English in North America A good government required checks and balances The problem? -- Europeans in the New World had unlimited power Atlantic slave trade hits its peak in the 18th century For Raynal and Diderot, slavery defied natural law and natural freedom A condemnation of slavery in a metaphorical sense Slavery as a violation of self-government Few philosophes advocated the total abolition of slavery Louis-Anne de Bougainville (1729-1811) Sent by the French government to the South Pacific (1767) Looked for a new route to China and new spices Described Tahiti Captain James Cook (1728-1779) Two trips to the South Pacific Charted coasts of New Zealand, New Holland, New Hebrides and Hawaii Explored the Antarctic continent, the Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) General observations Quarreled with and contradicted other philosophes Attacked privilege and believed in the goodness of humanity Introduced the notion of sensibility (the "cult of feeling") The first to speak of popular sovereignty and democracy 6 The most utopia of the philosophes The Social Contract (1762) "Man was born free, and everywhere he is in chains" The origins of government The legitimacy of government Social inequality and private property Legitimate authority arises from the people alone: Sovereignty should not be divided among different branches of the government Exercising sovereignty transformed the nation The national community would be united by the "general will" -Citizens bound by mutual obligation rather than coercive laws -Citizens' common interests represented in the whole Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) Republican ideas Spoke against inequality and artificial distinctions of rank, birth or wealth Society ought to seek "the perfection of our nature and capability of happiness" Women had the same innate capacity for reason and self-government Virtue the same thing for men and women Relations between the sexes ought to be based on equality The Book Trade The expansion of printing and "print culture" An international and clandestine book trade Growth of daily newspapers British press was relatively free of restrictions Censorship only made books more expensive "Philosophical books" -- subversive literature of all kinds The 18th century "literary underground" Middle-class culture and reading Shopkeepers, small merchants, lawyers and professionals -- a different reading public Bought and borrowed books Targeted middle class women Popularized Enlightenment treatises on education and the mind Popularity of the novel Popularity of theNovel Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) -- Pamela and Clarissa Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) -- Moll Flanders and Robinson Crusoe Henry Fielding (1707-1754) -- Tom Jones Fanny Burney (1752-1840) -- Evelina Ann Radcliffe (1764-1823) Maria Edgeworth (1767-1849) Jane Austen (1775-1817) -- Pride and Prejudice and Emma Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) Remained a German provincial his entire life A church musician at Leipzig Supplied music for Sunday and holiday services An ardent Protestant, unaffected by the the secularism of the Enlightenment George Frederick Handel (1685-1759) Public-pleasing cosmopolitan Established himself in London The oratorio -- musical drama to be performed in concert The Messiah Classical music Hayden and Mozart The "classical style" Imitating classical principles of order, clarity and symmetry The string quartet and the symphony Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) Began composing at age four, a keyboard virtuoso at 6 Wrote his first symphony at age nine Attracted attention across Europe Freemasonry Died relatively poor The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni and The Magic Flute Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) Spent his life with a wealthy Austro-Hungarian family Moved to London -- "commercial market for culture The "father of the symphony" The Ancien Regime Aristocrats resented monarchical inroads on freedom Middle-class resented a society of privilege that was outmoded Peasants resented the increasing demands of the central government The French Revolution Moderate stage: 1789-1792 Radical stage: 1792-1794 The Directory: 1794-1799 Napoleon: 1799-1815 The three estates First Estate: clergy Second Estate: nobility Third Estate: everyone else Causes of the French Revolution Social boundaries between noble and non-noble ill-defined From bourgeois wealth to noble wealth The articulation of discontent Locke, Voltaire and Montesquieu appeal to discontented nobles and middle class French economy was ailing peasants being taxed Louis XVI was anxious to serve as an enlightened monarch His efforts at reform undermined his own authority Tensions between the central governments and the provincial parlements slowed reform Parlements defend nobility's exemption from paying taxes to pay for the Seven Years' War Louis XVI was a weak monarch Chaotic financial situation Severe social tensions From "bourgeois" wealth to "noble" wealth Most noble wealth was proprietary -- tried to land Influx of new wealth from banking, shipping, slave trade, and mining Identified with the nobility, not the common people Prosperous members of the Third Estate air their frustrations in public debate Destruction of the Old Regime Moderate Stage, June 1789 - August 1792 Fiscal crisis The Estates General Fiscal crisis in france Calonne and Brienne proposed new taxes, a stamp duty, and direct tax on agricultural produce Louis summons the Assembly of Notables (last called 1626) Aristocrats used the financial emergency to extract constitutional reforms Insisted that any new tax scheme be approved by the Estates General The Estates General Summoned by Louis in summer, 1788 (first time since 1614) The three estates elect delegates Delegates draw up the cahiers et doléances (list of grievances) Delegates of the Third Estate represented the outlook of the elite 25% lawyers, 43% government officials Strong sense of common grievance and common purpose Areas of disagreement Should the estates vote by estate or by individual? Abbé Sieyès, What is the Third Estate? (1789) Third Estate agree the Estate should sit together and vote as individuals Also insisted the Third Estate to have as many delegates as the First and Second Estates combined "Doubling the Third" Opposed by Louis, then he changed his position (December 1788) June 17, 1789: the delegates of the Third Estate declare themselves to be the National Assembly June 20, 1789: the Oath of the Tennis Court June 27, 1789: Louis orders all delegates to join the National Assembly Disagreement within the estates general Should the estates vote by estate or by individual? Abbé Sieyès, What is the Third Estate? (1789) Third Estate agree the Estate should sit together and vote as individuals Also insisted the Third Estate to have as many delegates as the First and Second Estates combined National Assembly June 17, 1789: the delegates of the Third Estate declare themselves this Popular revolts (beginning of FR) Public attention to the events in Paris was high Price of bread soared Rumors circulate that Louis was about to stage a coup d'état Parisian workers (sans-culottes) organize a militia of volunteers The fall of the Bastille July 14, 1789 symbol of royal authority It's fall as symbol of the people's role in revolutionary change National Assembly abolishes all forms of privilege August 4, 1789 abolish Church tithe, the corvée, hunting privileges, tax exemptions, and monopolies Obliterated the remnants of feudalism The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen Written in August, issued in September by National Assembly Declared natural rights Private property Liberty, security and resistance to oppression Declared freedom of speech, religious toleration, and liberty of the press to be inviolable Equality before the law The rights of women Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) Olympe de Gouges, Declaration of the Rights of Women and Citizen (1791) Women have the same rights as men Women and the Revolution General participation in the Revolution Joined clubs, demonstrations, and debates The women "citizens" reforms of the National Assembly Sold off Church lands Guilds were abolished Local governments restructured France was divided into 83 equal departments The defense of liberty and freedom from ancient privilege The Radical Revolution August 1792-July 1794 From moderate leaders to radical "republicans" The politicization of the common people, especially in cities Newspapers Political clubs Greater political awareness heightened by fluctuations in prices Demands for cheaper bread Demands for government to do something about inflation Lack of effective national leadership Louis XVI remained a weak an vacillating monarch Forced to accept the Civil Constitution of the Clergy Louis urged on by Marie Antoinette, brother of Leopold II of Austria June 20, 1791: the Flight to Varennes Louis now a "prisoner" of the Revolution War All Europeans took a side in the conflict Political societies formed outside France proclaim their allegiance to the Revolution. The counterrevolution emigrés stir it up Edmund Burke (1729-1797) Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) Austria and Prussia declare support for French monarchy (August 1791) April 20, 1792: the National Assembly declares war on Austria and Prussia Edmund Burke (1729-1797) Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) Attacked the revolution as a crime against the social order The French had turned their back on history Men and women had no natural rights Aroused sympathy for the counterrevolutionary cause Edmund Burke The French Republic More egalitarian leaders of the Third Estate: the Jacobins The National Convention (September 1792) The end of the French monarchy Small armies of sans-culottes attack hoarders and profiteers Military reforms Jacobians egalitarian leaders of the Third Estate proclaimed themselves the voice of the people and the nation The end of the French monarchy France declared a republic (September 21, 1792) Louis placed on trial (December 1792) Louis executed (January 23, 1793) The September Massacres Patriotic Paris mobs convene revolutionary tribunal to try traitors - Over 1000 killed in one week 1792 National Convention Abolition of slavery in French colonies Repeal of primogeniture Confiscated property of enemies of the Revolution Set maximum prices for grain The revolutionary calendar Military reforms in France (after revolution) France faced Britain, Holland, Spain and Austria (February 1793) French revolutionary armies The revolutionary government drafts all men capable of bearing arms (August 1793) French military successes Low Countries, Rhineland, Switzerland, parts of Spain, and Savoy Reign of Terror Convention delayed adoption of constitution with male suffrage (1793) The Committee of Public Safety CPS) The "Twelve" New radical leaders Jean Paul Marat Georges Jacques Danton Maximilien Robespierre Committee faced sabotage from the political left and right Jean Paul Marat Did not admire Great Britain Opposed moderates Edited The Friend of the People Killed by Charlotte Corday, a royalist (summer 1793) Georges Jacques Danton Popular political leader Member of the CPS Wearied of the Terror Sent to the guillotine (April 1794) Maximilien Robespierre Trained as a lawyer Became president of the National Convention Member of the CPS Enlarged the Terror Risks of Sabotage to CPS Need for absolute control The "Mountain" allies with Parisian artisans Rebellions: Lyons, Bordeaux, and Marseilles CPS rounds up suspects in the countryside September 1793-July 1794: executions as high as 25-30,000 500,000 incarcerated between March 1793 and August 1794 Second French Revolution The sans-culottes reversed trend toward decentralization Replaced local officials with "deputies on mission" Closed down women's political clubs The erosion of traditional institutions Church, guild, and parish Replaced with patriotic organizations Mobilization for revolution Counterrevolutionary groups were also "popular" movements The sans-culottes Workers' trousers replace breeches The red cap of liberty Citizen and citizeness Festivals The Ninth of Thermidor (July 27, 1794) Robespierre kicked out of the Convention Guillotined the following day (along with 21 other "conspirators") The Directory after the terror Five men chosen by the legislative body Could not stabilize the government Faced discontent on the radical left and conservative right On the left Stopped radical movements to abolish private property Graachus Babeuf On the right Elections in March 1797 returned a large number of constitutional monarchists Could not control developments Called Napoleon Bonaparte to their assistance Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) Recaptured Toulon from the British (1793) Made brigadier general at age 24 Delivered the "whiff of grapeshot that saved the Convention (1795) Victories in the Italian campaign Attempted to defeat Britain by attacking British forces in Egypt and the Near East French fleet defeated by Nelson at Abukir Bay (1798) Napoleon declared a "temporary consul" (18 Brumaire, November 9, 1799) Napolean - Consolidating authority 1799-1804 Napoleon rose from obscurity to become the savior of France Was able to master his plans in every detail Assumes title of First Consul and governed in the name of the Republic (1799) New constitution Universal male suffrage Two legislative bodies The plebiscite -- puts questions directly to popular vote Bypasses politicians and legislative bodies Asks the legislature to proclaim him consul for life (1802) The reorganization of the state Abolition of privileges "Careers open to talent" Generally fair system of taxation Halted the inflationary spiral Replaced local elected officials with centrally appointed prefects and subprefects The plebiscite puts questions directly to popular vote Bypasses politicians and legislative bodies The Napoleonic Code (1804) Uniformity and individualism Abolition of all feudal privileges Property rights Paternal authority and the subordination of women and children Equality before the law Outlawed arbitrary arrest and imprisonment The Concordat of 1801 Ended hostility between France and the Church Pope had the right to depose bishops and discipline the clergy Church lands expropriated by the Revolution would not return to the Church First Coalition Austria, Prussia, Britain (collapse 1795), revived in 1798 Napoleon's Empire Collapse of the First Coalition -- Austria, Prussia, Britain (1795), revived in 1798 Russia and Austria withdraw (1801) The new empire Series of small republics from Austria's empire and old German kingdoms France's revolutionary "gift" of independence to all European patriots Military buffers and system of client states The Confederation of the Rhine Napoleon introduces his reforms throughout the new empire The legacy Accumulated useful knowledge An image for posterity - Arc de Triomphe A mixed blessing - liberator or upstart emperor? Napoleon's reforms Administrative modernization Careers open to talent Reorganization of public works and education New taxes collected to support the new state Liberty and law Eliminated feudal and church courts Created a single legal system Civil rights granted to Protestants and Jews New electoral districts Government emanated from Paris and Napoleon Continental System Blockade of British goods from the continent (1806) Napoleon's first serious mistake British developed trade with South America Europe divided into economic camps Napoleon's Ambition Remaking Europe as new Roman Empire, ruled from Paris Republican Roman ideals -- art, architecture, clothing Made his brothers and sisters monarchs of newly created kingdoms Divorces Josephine (1809), marries Marie Louise, daughter of Francis I (Hapsburg) in order to have heir Jena Prussian army humiliated (1806) Continuing war 1809+ France against Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden and Britain Trafalgar french defeated 1805 invasion of Spain (1808) Invasion aimed at conquest of Portugal Napoleon installs his brother on the Spanish throne Guerilla warfare Russian campaign (1812) Ended in disaster Russians drew the French further into Russia Napoleon orders his troops to retreat (October 19, 1812) The Russian winter Le Grande Arme men from 20 different nations in it. 3rd were french. 600,000 men Battle of Eylau Russians try to take on Napoleon - "Battle in the Blizzard" Francisca Goya artist who captures blood shed from guerilla warefare in spain when napoleon tries to get to portugal fourth coalition britain goes to Russia and Prussia again in 1806 Confederation of the Thine - 1806 replaces the Holy Roman Empire under napoleon made up of 36 states Dutchy of Warsaw created because Napoleon looks down on the partition of Poland (1772) between Russia and Prussia so he helps uhm out Admiral Nelson 1805 - Battle of Trafalgar British led by one of greatest naval heroes of all time Rare tactic called Crossing the T. Cuts fleet in half. Third Coalition 1805 England focuses on nations like Prussia and Austria and making them grow up and fight back - England ponies up money for them to fight Napoleon Battle of Austerlitz 1805 Napoleon's proudest battle - sets fear into monarchs defeat Austria and Russia 1804 proclaims france and empire Napoleonic Code makes one unified law codes (commercial, crime and punishment) now citizens not surfs/peasants/SUBJECTS governs the laws of citizens he creates modern france "The revolution is over, I am the revolution." - the living embodiment of the revolution 18 Brumaire 1799 November 9th Directory made up of 5 men 1795 - III (year #3) new constitution - more conservative (all males who could read and write could vote) do away with committee of public safety The reign of Terror (93-4) largely led by Robes Pierre first time the guillotine put into practice on large scale 'republican baptisms' cruelty to priests etc Marie Antoinette executed in late 93 Dauphin is given to these poor parents and died of malnourishment remarkably the war was going well - holding their own with Austria Robes makes a mistake and is arrested - fail 'the revolution is now devouring it's own children' radicalism begins to die down 30,000 executed during the reign of terror Thermidorian Reaction - where moderates get control of the revolution again and the gov't Jacobians outlawed and closed down more wealthy middle class take up gov't roles sans-couls taken care of Dechristianization got rid of the calender first make a new calender (1792 became year 1) called the Revolutionary Calender every month 30 days get rid of sunday 7 day not a holiday. 10th day your day off. Rename the months July - thermidor Notre dam - renamed temple of reason people like WTF losing members Committee of Public safety 93 he new 'monarch' ruler type person becomes the most feared element of the revolution root out counter revolutionist 1792 france becomes a republic sans-coulottes have more power (joined with jacobians) demanded price controls because they'd been the ones affected by inflation put louis 16th on trial declare war on england, holland, spain general requisition of draft age male - first time draft! Probably why they're able to hold it's own against their opposition - democratizing the army - HUGE crack down on the catholic church Dechristianization 1789-91 Bourgeois phase 1792-5 Radical Revolution Convention national assembly drawing up new Constitution in 1792-5 said all free white men could vote - theoretically populous largely radical new election - the Jacobians take control - believed the national assembly was too moderate FR enters new phase left wing gets in control