AP PSYCH MIDTERM REVIEW B
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253 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 accommodation | the process of modifying a schema to account for new information; the process of the eyes lens changing shape in order to focus on distant or near objects |
| acetylcholine (ACh) | a neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory and muscle movement |
| action potential | the electrical process by which information is transmitted the length of an axon |
| activation synthesis | the idea that dreams are the result of the cerebral cortex interpreting and organizing random flashes of brain activity, originating in the lower brain structures, especially the pons |
| after image | an image that remains after a stimulus is removed, especially one in which the colors are reversed |
| agonists | drugs which mimic the activity of neurotransmitters |
| all or none | description of the action of neurons when firing |
| amygdala | limbic system component associated with emotion, particularly fear and anger |
| antagonist | drug which blocks the activity of neurotransmitters |
| aphasia | impairment of language usually caused by damage to the left hemisphere |
| assimilation | interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schema |
| attachment | theory developed by Harlow; types include secure and insecure |
| authoritarian | style of parenting in which the parent creates strict rules for the child and the child has little or no input into determining the rules |
| autonomic nervous system | division of the nervous system that control the glands and organs; its divisions arouse or calm |
| autonomy vs. shame and doubt | Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt |
| axon | extension of the neuron which carries, via an action potential, information that will be sent on to other neurons, muscles or glands |
| applied research | scientific investigations intended to solve practical problems |
| behavioral | perspective on psychology that sees psychology as an objective science without reference to mental states |
| binocular cues | retinal disparity and convergence which enable people to determine depth using both eyes |
| bipolar cells | eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells |
| blind spot | point in the retinal where the optic nerve leaves the retina so there are no rods or cones there |
| bottom-up processing | analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works its way up to the brain's integration of sensory information |
| hemispheres | we have two, right and left, and some brain functions seem to centered in one or the other |
| brainstem | oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells upon entering the skull; controls fundamental survival processes like heartrate and breathing |
| case study | scientific investigation in which a single subject is studied in great detail |
| CAT scan | a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography |
| Central Nervous System | consists of the brain and the spinal cord |
| cerebellum | brain structure that controls well-learned motor activities like riding a bike |
| cerebral cortex | the fabric of interconnecting cells that blankets the brain hemispheres; the brain's center for information processing and control |
| chaining | using operant conditioning to teach a complex response by linking together less complex skills |
| chunking | organizing units of information into manageable units such as memorizing a phone number as three groups of information 248-555-1212 |
| circadian rhythm | the daily biological rhythms that occur in a 24-hour period |
| classical conditioning | method of learning in which a neutral stimulus can be used to elicit a response that is usually a natural response to a stimulus |
| clinical | this type of psychologist studies, assesses and treats those with psychological disorders |
| cochlea | this coiled structure in the inner ear is fluid-filled and in it the energy from sound waves stimulate hair cells to produce neural impulses (transduction) |
| cognitive | perspective on psychology that stresses the importance of mental activities associated with thinking, remembering, etc |
| color blindness | a variety of disorders marked by inability to distinguish some or all colors |
| collectivist | this adjective describes cultures in which the individual is less important than the group |
| concrete operations | Piaget's stage in which children learn such concepts as conservation and mathematical transformations; about 7 - 11 years of age |
| conditioned response | in classical conditioning, the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus |
| conditioning | generally, learning in which certain experiences make certain behaviors more or less likely; there are two forms of this |
| conduction deafness | one type of hearing impairment caused by mechanical problems in the ear structures |
| cones | neurons in the retina that are responsible for color vision |
| confirmation bias | a tendency to search for information that supports one's preconceptions |
| confounding variable | extraneous factor that interferes with the action of the independent variable on the dependent variable |
| consciousness | one's awareness of one's environment and oneself. |
| control group | subjects in an experiment who do not receive application of the independent variable but are measured nonetheless for the dependent variable |
| cornea | the transparent outer covering of the eye |
| corpus callosum | the fibers that connect the right and left hemispheres, enabling them to communicate |
| correlation | the degree of relationship between two variables |
| correlation coefficient | a positive one near 1.0 indicates two variable are positively related; a negative number indicates a negative relationship; zero indicates no relationship |
| cross-sectional | type of study that measures a variable across several age groups at the same time |
| debriefing | giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed |
| delta waves | largest brain waves, associated with deep, dreamless sleep |
| dendrite | a branch off the cell body of a neuron that receives new information from other neurons |
| dependent variable | the variable that the experimenter measures at the end of the experiment |
| depth perception | an ability that we exercise by using both monocular and binocular cues |
| difference threshold | also called the jnd; smallest distinction between two stimuli that can consistently be detected |
| dopamine | a neurotransmitter that is associated with Parkinson's disease (too little of it) and schizophrenia (too much of it) |
| double blind | this term describes an experiment in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows whether a subject is a member of the experimental group or the control group |
| eardrum | also called the tympanic membrane |
| echoic | term that describes memory of sounds |
| EEG | initials of a method of representation of brain waves |
| egocentrism | in a toddler, the belief that others perceive the world in the same way that he or she does |
| embryo | early stage of human development, when cells have begun to differentiate |
| endorphins | neurotransmitters that give one a feeling of well-being, euphoria or eliminate pain |
| experiment | form of scientific investigation in which one variable is tested to determine its effect on another; establishes causation |
| experimental group | subjects in an experiment to whom the independent variable is administered |
| extinction | in classical conditioning, the process of eliminating the previously acquired association of the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response |
| false consensus | a belief that others share the same opinion about something, when actually most don't |
| feature detection | the ability of the brain to identify specific components of visual stimuli such as corners or edges |
| fetal alcohol syndrome | sometimes the result in a child of the mother's excessive drinking while pregnant, characterized by low birth weight, facial abnormalities, mental retardation |
| fetus | a stage in human development extending from about ten weeks after conception to birth |
| figure-ground | refers to our ability to distinguish foreground from background in visual images |
| fixed interval | describes the schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker receives a paycheck every Friday |
| fixed ratio | describes a schedule of reinforcement wherein a worker is paid for a certain sum for each product produced |
| flashbulb | term describes a vivid memory of a personally significant and emotional event |
| fluid | term describes a type of intelligence used to cope with novel situations and problems |
| crystallized | term describes a type of intelligence which applies cultural knowledge to solving problems |
| formal operations | One of Piaget's stages; includes the ability to use abstract thinking |
| fovea | the central focus area of the retina |
| frequency | theory of hearing which states that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the tone's frequency |
| functionalism | William James's school of thought that stressed the adaptive and survival value of behaviors |
| ganglion cells | their axons form the optic nerve |
| gestalt | German word for "whole", it refers to our tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete |
| glial cell | this acts as a support system for neurons |
| heritability | the extent to which differences in a group of a characteristic is due to genetics, not environment |
| hindsight bias | the tendency, after an event occurs, to overestimate the likelihood that an event could have been predicted |
| hippocampus | limbic system component associated with memory |
| homeostasis | the steady, stable state that is the body's regulatory processes try to maintain |
| humanist | perspective in psychology that stresses the goodness of people and their possibility of reaching their fullest potential |
| hypothalamus | limbic system component that regulates hunger, body temperature and other functions |
| iconic | term that describes the memory of images |
| identity vs. role confusion | Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves |
| imprinting | evidence of critical period in some animals; they follow the first moving thing they see after hatching |
| independent variable | type of variable manipulated by the experimenter |
| individualist | culture in which the individual is valued more highly than the group |
| industry vs. inferiority | Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, when the child learns to be productive |
| information processing | humans accomplish this either in parallel (unconsciously) or in serial fashion (consciously) |
| informed consent | agreement to participate in psychology research, after being appraised of the dangers and benefits of the research |
| initiative vs guilt | Erikson's third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities |
| insomnia | inability to fall asleep or remain asleep long enough for sufficient rest |
| integrity vs despair | Erikson's final stage in which those near the end of life look back and evaluate their lives |
| interneurons | cells in the spinal cord through which reflexes travel without going to the brain |
| interposition | monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away |
| intimacy vs isolation | Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families |
| just noticeable difference | the threshold at which one can distinguish two stimuli that are of different intensities, but otherwise identical |
| kinethesis | sense of balance and of one's physical position |
| latent learning | a change in behavior due to experience acquired without conscious effort, s, for example, a student using a quote in an exam essay that the student had never tried to memorize, though eh had encountered it in studying |
| law of effect | Thorndike's rule that behaviors which have positive outcomes tend to be repeated |
| learned helplessness | lack of motivation to avoid unpleasant stimuli after one has failed before to escape similar stimuli |
| lens | a curved, transparent element of the vision system that provides focus |
| lesion | any destruction or damage to brain tissue |
| longitudinal | describes research that measures a trait in a particular group of subjects over a long period of time |
| manifest | describes, in Freudian terms, the surface content of a dream |
| medulla | part of the brain nearest the spinal cord which controls breathing, heart rate and blood pressure |
| modeling | the process of observing and imitating a behavior |
| monocular | terms that means "one eyed", used to indicate the sort of of enviromental cues to depth perception tha tonly require one eye, for example, interposition |
| motion parallax | a depth cue in which the relative movement of elements in a scene gives depth information when the observer moves relative to the scene |
| motor cortex | an area of the brain, near the rear of the frontal lobes, that controls voluntary movement |
| motor neuron | this carries information from the brain to the muscles; also called "efferent" |
| MRI | a technique that enables us to see static images of the brain's structures; uses magnetism to achieve this effect |
| myelin sheath | a layer of fatty tissue encasing a neuron's axon that speeds transmission |
| narcolepsy | a disorder characterized by sudden sleep attacks, often at inopportune times |
| naturalistic | term refers to observations made of individual's behavior in an everyday life setting |
| nature vs nurture | name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior |
| negative reinforcement | in operant conditioning, removing something unpleasant in order to elicit more of a particular behavior |
| neural network | refers to interconnected neuron cells |
| neuron | the fundamental building block of the nervous system |
| neuroscience | perspective on psychology that emphasizes the study of the brain and its effects on behavior |
| neurotransmitter | a chemical that is released by a neuron for the purpose of carrying information across the gaps (synapses) between neurons |
| neutral | describes a stimulus in classical conditioning that would normally not elicit the response intended, such as the tone in Pavlov's experiments before it was associated with the food |
| night terrors | also called sleep terror disorder, these include the characteristic of waking abruptly in a state of panic, usually in children, less often in adults |
| NREM | refers to sleep during which there is no rapid eye movement |
| object permanence | recognition that things continue to exist even though hidden from sight; infants generally gain this after 3 to 7 months of age |
| observational learning | change in behavior due to watching other people behave |
| occipital | this lobe contains the primary vision processing function |
| olfactory bulb | the first brain structure to pick up smell information from the nose |
| omission training | a procedure in which reinforcement occurs when a specific behavior does not occur in a fixed period of time |
| operant conditioning | a method of influencing behavior by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing undesired ones |
| operational definition | a description of an experimental variable in such a way that the variable can be measured and the procedure can be replicated |
| optic chiasm | the point in the brain where the visual field information from each eye "crosses over" to the appropriate side of the brain for processing |
| optic nerve | the axons of the ganglion cells form this |
| opponent process theory | the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision. |
| oval window | membrane at the enterance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations |
| parasympathetic | the branch of the nervous system that automatically calms us down when the reason for arousal has passed |
| parietal | lobe that contains the sensory cortex |
| perception | the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information |
| peripheral nervous system | the subsystem of the nervous system that does not include the CNS |
| permissive | describes a parenting style that is characterized by the parent making few demands on the child |
| personality | a consistent pattern of thinking, acting, feeling |
| PET scan | method of brain imaging using positron emissions |
| pituitary | gland that is the master gland of the endocrine system |
| place theory | the idea that different sound frequencies stimulate different locations on the basilar membrane |
| placebo | an inert substance given to the control group in an experiment |
| placebo effect | phenomenon that some people get better even though they receive not medication but an inert substance which should have no medical effect |
| plasticity | the ability of the brain to adapt to damage by reorganizing functions |
| pons | part of the brain, works with the cerebellum in coordinating voluntary movement; neural stimulation studied in activation synthesis theory may originate here |
| population | all of the individuals from which subjects for an experiment may be drawn |
| preconventional | Kohlberg's stage of moral development in which rewards and punishments dominate moral thinking |
| preoperational | Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, when egocentrism declines |
| psychiatrist | medical doctor who has specialized in treating psychological disorders |
| psychodynamic | term describes the perspective on psychology in which inner feeling and unconscious tensions are emphasized |
| punishment | can be either positive or negative, intended to reduce the occurrence of a behavior |
| random | term that describes assignment in which all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to the control group or to the experimental group |
| refractory period | resting time; occurs in both neuron firing and in human sexual response |
| reinforcer | in operant conditioning any event that strengthens the behavior it follows |
| reliability | in testing, the characteristic of a test that produces consistent scores through retesting or alternate halves or other methods |
| REM | describes sleep in which vivid dreams typically occur; this type of sleep increases as the night progresses while stage 4 sleep decreases |
| representative | this kind of sample accurately reproduces the characteristics of the population a researcher is studying |
| reticular formation | a network of cells in the brainstem that filters sensory information and is involved in arousal and alertness |
| retina | the sensory reception system of the eye; includes rods and cones |
| retrieval | the process of recovering information stored in memory |
| rods | responsible for black and white vision |
| rooting | a reflex in which a newborn turns its head in response to a gentle stimulus on its cheek |
| schedules of reinforcement | these include fixed interval and variable ratio |
| schema | a collection of basic knowledge about a category of information; serves as a means of organization and interpretation of that information |
| higher-order | term describes conditioning in which the CS for one experiment becomes the UCS in another experiment so that another neutral stimulus can be made to elicit the original UCR |
| selective attention | this term describes the situation when you are focused on certain stimuli in the environment while other stimuli are excluded |
| sensorimotor | describes Piaget's stage in which the child explores the world through interaction of his mouth and hands with the environment |
| sensory adaptation | reduced responsiveness caused by prolonged stimulation |
| sensory cortex | the parts of the brain that receive information from the sensory receptors |
| sensory neurons | nervous system cells that receive information from the environment |
| afferent | in neurons, another name for sensory |
| serotonin | a neurotransmitter; associated with improved mood and other positive emotions |
| shaping | an operant conditioning technique in which reinforces guide behavior to closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
| socio-cultural | a perspective on psychology that emphasizes effects on behavior and thinking of one's culture and the people around one |
| social learning | a theory that suggests we learn social behaviors by watching and imitating others |
| somatic | a division of the nervous system that controls voluntary muscle movements |
| split brain | a condition in which the two brain hemispheres are isolated by cutting the corpus callosum |
| spontaneous recovery | in classical conditioning the re-occurence of conditioning after it had appeared to be extinct |
| structuralism | school of psychology developed by Wilhelm Wundt |
| sympathetic | part of the nervous system that controls the "flight or fight" response |
| synaptic gap | space between the axon terminal of one neuron and the receptors of the next neuron |
| temperament | personality component that ranges from very calm to very exitable |
| temporal | the lobe that controls audition |
| thalamus | the sensory switchboard; smell is the only sensation that is not sent through the thalamus |
| theory | this organizes data and is used to make predictions |
| threshold | in a neuron, reaching this causes the neuron to fire |
| token economy | a technique in operant conditioning by which desired behaviors receive forms of currency that can be exchanged for rewards |
| twin studies | a common method of investigating whether nature or nurture affects behavior |
| unconditioned response | in conditioning the behavior elicited by the unconditioned stimulus |
| unconditioned stimulus | in conditioning it elicits the UCR |
| psychopharmacology | the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior. |
| psychology | the study of mental processes and behavior |
| transduction | conversion of physical into neural activity |
| amplitude | characteristic of wave form that produces degree of loudness and brightness |
| proximity | gestalt grouping principle based on nearness |
| figure-ground | the organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings. |
| linear perspective | depth perception cue that the more the lines converge the greater their perceived distance. |
| convergence | binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward while looking at an object |
| top-down processing | information processing guided higher level mental processes such as experiences and expectations |
| bottom up process | analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information |
| avoidance conditioning | a type of negative reinforcement in which the organism chooses to avoid the negative stimulus |
| REM Behavior Disorder | a disorder in which the person is not paralyzed during REM sleep |
| Dissociation theory | Theory that when we are hypnotized , approach to explaining hypnosis based on a separation between personality functions that are normally well integrated |
| Withdrawal | the termination of drug taking |
| Harry Harlow | studied attachment using monkey subjects |
| Hubel and Wiesel | won Nobel Prize for discovering feature detector cell used in brain processing of vision |
| Atkinson and Schiffrin | developed activation synthesis theory of dreaming |
| Baumrind | developed theory related to parenting/socialization styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive |
| Ainsworth | did attachment studies in children |
| Kohlberg | developed theory related moral development |
| Piaget | developed theory related to cognitive development |
| Pavlov | developed theory of classical conditioning |
| Skinner | developed theory of operant conditioning |
| social psychology | the study of how people behave in groups |
| amphetamine | stimulate neural activity, speeded up body functions and energy, and mood changes |
| REM behavior disorder | sleep disorder; not paralyzed dream REM |
| naturalistic observation | observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation |
| limbic system | brain structure associated with emotions and drives; includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus |
| bones of the middle ear | malleus, incus, stapes |
| opponent process theory | theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black) enable color vision |
| perceptual set | mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another |
| convergence | binocular cue for perceiving depth the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object |
| dissociation theory | theory of hypnosis in which control of consciousness is divided between the subject and the hypnotist |
| conditioned stimulus | in classical conditioning, that after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response |
| biological predisposition | each species is biologically prepared to learn associations that enhance its survival like taste aversion |
| generalization | the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses |
| discrimination | in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus |
| serial position effect | our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list |
| recall | a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned ealier |
| introspection | a technique used by structuralists in which the subjects looked inward to determeine the elements of their experience |
| operational definition | a statement of the procedures used to define research variable; how you observe and measure the variable |
| replication | respeating the procedures of someone else's experiment; helped by operational definitions |
| mirror neurons | neurons that fire when observing someone else performing some action' enables language learning and empathy |
| empathy | the ability to feel the same as someone you are obsserving |
| cocktail party effect | an example of selective attention; your ability to attend to only one voice among many |
| identity vs role confusion | One of Erikson's eight psychosocial stages of development; the adolescent is solidifiying a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles. |
| procedural memory | a type of implicit memory whenyou recall how to do something |
| cognitive map | a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. |
| human factors psychology | a brance of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use |
| semantic memory | The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words. |
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