psych exam 3
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152 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 periods of development | prenatal period infancy early childhood middle & late childhood adolescence early adulthood middle adulthood late adulthood |
| prenatal development | germinal embryonic fetal |
| teratogens | substances that harm development (alcohol, tobacco, caffeine, stress, poverty) |
| children's physical development | brain (neurons become myelinated) motor skills (varies between individuals) |
| cognitive development | Jean Piaget schemas assimilation accommodation |
| Piaget's stages | sensorimotor stage preoperational stage concrete operational stage formal operations stage |
| assimilation | fitting new information into existing schemas |
| conservation | recognition that when some properties (such as shape) of an object change, other properties (such as volume) remain constant |
| Vigotsky | relationship between child and caregiver/teacher Zones of Proximal Development scaffolding |
| moral development | Kohlberg (three-stage theory of moral reasoning) |
| day care controversy | day care infants more likely to be insecurely attached day care may or may not be associated with increased behavior problems high quality child care associated with increased social and academic competence quality of mothering and maternal sensitivity are more important to developmental outcome |
| Erikson's stages of development | children's socioemotional development 1: trust vs. mistrust 2: autonomy vs. shame & doubt (ages 1 to 3) 3: initiative vs. guilt (ages 3 to 6) 4: industry vs. inferiority (ages 6 to puberty) 5: identity vs. role confusion (adolescence) 6: intimacy cs. isolation (young adulthood) 7: generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood) 8: ego integrity vs. despair (late adulthood) |
| parenting styles | authoritarian authoritative indulgent neglectful |
| Harlow | baby monkeys and wire mother believed there was much more between a child and parent than just providing nutrition set out to prove importance of contact comfort |
| Ainsworth & attachment | styles of attachment gives the expectations of what to expect from the world secure attachment anxious-resistant attachment anxious-avoidant |
| Schanberg & Field (infant massage study) | applied Harlow's studies to premature born babies infant massage programs massaged infants gained more weight than those that didn't get massaged, more active/alert, on average left hospital 6 days earlier |
| pruning | degradation of synapses and dying off of neurons that are not strengthened by experience |
| sensorimotor stage | birth to two years come to know world through sensory and motor activity |
| object permanence | objects exist when out of view |
| separation anxiety | Distress that is sometimes experienced by infants when they are separated from their primary caregivers |
| preoperational stage | egocentrism conservation (preoperational child does not understand) |
| egocentrism | in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view |
| concrete operational stage | seven to eleven years begins when child understands conservation can group similar objects together capable of logical reasoning think like adults, but can't think abstractly |
| formal operations stage | ages twelve and up able to reason on a logical hypothetical level |
| accommodation | modifying existing schemas to fit new information |
| zones of proximal development | range of capabilities/potential that a child has |
| scaffolding | support so that a child can reach that upper limit of zone of proximal development |
| social referencing | the ability to make use of social and emotional information from another person (especially a caregiver) in an uncertain situation |
| emotional competence | the ability to control emotions and know when it is appropriate to express certain emotions |
| peers | people who share equal standing or status and are at the same level, in terms of age, gender, skill, or power |
| preconventional level | first and least-developed level of Kohlberg's moral reasoning focuses on avoiding punishment or maximizing rewards |
| conventional level | second level of Kohlberg's moral reasoning the person values caring, trust, and relationships as well as the social order and lawfulness |
| postconventional level | third level of Kohlberg's moral reasoning person recognizes universal moral rules that may trump unjust or immoral local rules |
| authoritarian | set the rules and expect them to be followed unquestioned obedience uncommunicative somewhat distant children tend to be isolated/anxious/unhappy bigger impact on boys |
| authoritative | set high but realistic standards use communication/warmth/attention to encourage independence |
| indulgent | make few rules or demands warm not many expectations/standards children tend to be more impulsive/immature/have poor self control |
| neglectful | unconcerned and uninvolved basically absent associated with drinking problems in children/delinquent behavior/poor academic success in school |
| secure attachment | infants will gradually explore new situations when the caregiver leaves and initiate contact when the caregiver returns after separation |
| anxious-resistant attachment | infants are ambivalent when separated and reunited with their caregiver |
| anxious-avoidant | infants stay calm when their primary caregiver leaves and ignore/avoid her when she returns |
| motivation | the urge to move toward one's goals/to accomplish one's tasks |
| needs | inherently biological states of deficiency (cellular or bodily) that compel drives ex. needs for water, food, etc |
| drives | the perceived states of tension that occur when our bodies are deficient in some need, creating an urge to relieve the tension ex. drink, eat, etc |
| incentive | any external object or event that motivates behavior ex. money, winning a gold medal |
| arousal | we are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal |
| Maslow | hierarchy of needs- range from the most basic physiological necessities to the highest, most psychological needs for growth and fulfillment (lowest) physiological needs (food, water, oxygen, body temp) safety needs (stability, dependency, protection) love & belongingness needs (friendship, sex, children) need for esteem (appreciate one's self) need for self actualization |
| self actualization | the inherent drive to realize one's full potential |
| hunger- physiological factors | depends on how much food we have consumed recently and how much energy is available for organ function hypothalamus, hormones, neurochemicals |
| glucose | simple sugar that provides energy for cells throughout the body, including the brain monitored in the liver and brain and when it goes down we experience hunger |
| insulin | increase in insulin results in an increase of hunger |
| Cholecystokinin (CCK) | signal hormone that tells us to stop eating, secreted by the stomach and gastric tract |
| leptin | suppresses appetitie |
| Neuropeptide Y vs. 5-HT (carbs) | stimulates desire for carbohydrates |
| Galanin vs. Entrostatin (high fat) | galanin increases cravings for fat vs. entrostatin decreases our cravings for fat |
| Lateral hypothalamus (LH) | feeding center, stimulates eating if destroyed no longer would get a signal to eat |
| Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) | satiety center stops eating behavior Stimulating this would cause an animal to stop eating even if they were food deprived |
| Paraventricular nucleus | similar to VHM |
| externality hypothesis | overweight people are motivated by external rather than internal cues |
| hunger- external and cognitive factors | effect of taste presence of others super size it |
| achievement motivation | a desire to do things well and overcome obstacles |
| intrinsic motivation | internal motivation to succeed |
| extrinsic motivation | sensitivity to external rewards/punishments |
| sexual behavior | actions that produce arousal and increase the likelihood of orgasm |
| four phases of sexual arousal | excitement plateau orgasm resolution |
| sexual orientation | the disposition to be attracted to either the opposite sex (heterosexual), the same sex (homosexual), or both sexes (bisexual) |
| motivation to succeed | extent to which you really want to be successful |
| expectation of success | an individual's evaluation of the likelihood of succeeding at a task |
| incentive value | success at the task has to be important to you the more difficult the task and the lower the odds of succeeding at it, the more it will mean to you if you do succeed |
| emotion | brief, acute change in conscious experience and physiology that occur in response to a personally meaningful situation |
| mood | affective state that operates in the background of consciousness and tend to last longer than most emotions |
| affective traits | stable predispositions toward certain types of emotional responses such as anger enduring aspects of our personalities that set the threshold for the occurrence of particular emotional states |
| basic emotions | set of emotions that are common to all humans anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise *not single states, they are groups of related emotions |
| self-conscious emotions | types of emotion that require a sense of self and the ability to reflect on actions they occur as a function of meeting expectations (or not) and abiding (or not) by society's rules |
| broaden-and-build model | Fredrickson's model for positive emotions, which posits that they widen our cognitive perspective and help us acquire useful life skills |
| antecedent event | a situation that may lead to an emotional response |
| appraisal | the evaluation of a situation with respect to how relevant it is to one's own welfare it drives the process by which emotions are elicitied |
| emotion regulation | the cognitive and behavioral efforts people make to modify their emotions |
| reappraisal | an emotion regulation strategy in which one reevaluates an antecedent event so that a different emotion results |
| expressive-repression | a response-focused strategy for regulating emotion that involves the deliberate attempt to inhibit the outward manifestation of an emotion |
| emotional response | the physiological, behavioral/expressive, and subjective changes that occur when emotions are generated |
| facial action coding system (FACS) | widely used method for measuring all observable muscular movements that are possible in the human face |
| Duchenne smile | a smile that expresses true enjoyment, involving both the muscles that pull up the lip corners diagonally and those that contract the band of muscles encircling the eye |
| subjective experience of emotion | the changes in the quality of our conscious experience that occur during emotional responses |
| James-Lange theory of emotion | the idea that it is the perception of the physiological changes that accompany emotions that produces the subjective emotional experience |
| Ekman | neurocultural theory of emotion explanation that some aspect of emotion, such as facial expressions and physiological changes associated with emotion, are universal and others, such as emotional regulation, are culturally derived |
| display rules | learned norms or rules, often taught very early, about when it is appropriate to express certain emotions and to whom one should show them |
| Cannon-Bard Theory | emotional responses occur at the same time as the physiological changes |
| opponent process theory | Richard Solomon emotional stimuli elicit primary and secondary processes Secondary process is CNS attempt to maintain homeostasis |
| Schacter and Singer | two factor theory emotional stimuli elicit arousal and then we interpret the causes of arousal to determine emotion |
| emotion in infants | Present at birth - disgust, distress, interest 2-4 months - happiness, surprise 7-9 months - fear, sadness, anger |
| emotion and laterality | Richard J. Davidson asymmetry in response to emotional activation left anterior- approach related emotions - interest, happiness, anger right anterior- withdrawal related emotions - fear, disgust fear and disgust produce right frontal activation happiness produces left frontal activation |
| Davidson | frontal asymmetry predicts emotional responsiveness left frontal subjects report more positive reactions to positive films right frontal subjects report more negative reactions to negative films |
| personality | the unique and relatively enduring set of behaviors, feelings, thoughts, and motives that characterize an individual |
| trait | a disposition to behave consistently in a particular way |
| behavioral thresholds | the point at which a person moves from not having a particular response to having one |
| psychoanalytic perspectives | psychoanalysis humanism social-cognitive learning trait theory biological theory |
| psychoanalysis | Sigmund Freud interpreting dreams id, ego, superego the adult personality stems from early childhood experiences |
| unconscious | the level of consciousness containing all drives, urges, and instincts that are outside awareness but nonetheless motivate most behavior |
| id | Freud the seat of impulse and desire the pleasure-seeking part of our personality |
| superego | Freud the part of the mind that monitors behavior and evaluates it in terms of right and wrong the conscience |
| ego | Freud the sense of self the part of the mind that operates on the "reality principle" |
| defense mechanisms | unconscious strategies the mind uses to protect itself from anxiety by denying and distorting reality in some way repression, reaction formation, projection, sublimation, denial, regression, rationalization, displacement, identification |
| repression | anxiety feelings pushed out of awareness serves as starting point for all of the defense mechanisms |
| denial | repression in the extreme denying that these thoughts ever existed |
| projection | people project their unacceptable impulses/feelings onto others "it's not me, it's them" |
| reaction formation | conversion of our unacceptable impulses into the complete opposite turning hatred into love |
| regression | revert back to an earlier stage ex. adult throwing a temper tantrum |
| rationalization | make excuses for our failures/shortcomings |
| displacement | we take our uncomfortable impulses and direct them at a safer target ex. take anger from boss out on dog |
| identification | identify with individual who is more powerful/better at coping (act like them) |
| sublimation | channeling these impulses into acceptable outlets |
| psychosexual stage theory | Freud's stages of personality development in different stages a different region of the body is most erogenous (pleasurable) oral anal phallic (oedipus/electra complex) latency (impulses directed towards school achievement) genital |
| fixation | a defense mechanism whereby a person continues to be concerned and even preoccupied with earlier stages of development |
| Neo Freudians | Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Karen Horney |
| Carl Jung | collective unconscious (shared unconscious across human history) myths and fairytales- archetypes 2 dimensions of personality (extroversion and introversion) |
| Alfred Adler | motived by sense of inferiority so we strive for superiority -compensation *inferiority complex birth order influences personality |
| Karen Horney | basic anxiety- fuels personality neurotic trends |
| inferiority complex | an unhealthy need to dominate or upstage others as a way of compensating for feelings of deficiency |
| personal unconscious | Jung all our repressed and hidden thoughts, feelings, and motives |
| collective unconscious | Jung the shared experiences of our ancestors that have been passed down from generation to generation |
| archetypes | ancient or archaic images that result from common ancestral experiences shadow, anima and animus |
| anima | Jung the female part of the male personality |
| animus | Jung the male part of the female personality |
| neurotic trends | 1. moving toward others (compliant personality) 2. moving against others (aggressive personality) 3. moving away from others (detached personality) |
| Maslow | hierarchy of needs- self-actualization identified a set of characteristics that he believed to be more common in self-actualizing individuals than in other people |
| Carl Rogers | developed a unique form of psychotherapy based on the assumption that people naturally strive toward growth and fulfillment and need unconditional positive regard for that to happen |
| unconditional positive regard | acceptance of another person regardless of his or her behavior real self (as we really are) ideal self (as we ideally would like to be) |
| Gordon Allport | trait theory central, secondary, and cardinal traits |
| central trait | the 5 to 10 most salient traits |
| cardinal trait | the single dominant trait that defines a person explains all behavior (not everyone has one) |
| secondary trait | the other traits you would think about much weaker effect on behavior more situationally bound |
| Raymond Cattell | used factor analysis to come up with 16 factors source and surface traits |
| source traits | underlying fundamental dimensions of personality |
| surface traits | superficial traits, based on combinations of source traits |
| the Big Five/five-factor model | a theory of personality that includes five dimensions Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism |
| basic tendencies | the essence of personality: the Big Five personality dimensions plus talents, aptitudes, and cognitive abilities |
| Hans Eysenck | three fundamental dimensions of personality: Psychoticism (impulse control) Extraversion (internal levels of arousal- more outgoing=less internal arousal) Neuroticism (to what extent is the mood stable) |
| cortical arousal | level of activation in the brain |
| Bandura | Self-System (sense of self) reciprocal feedback create a sense of self, and respond to the feedback we get from our environment |
| Rotter | Locus of Control expectancies extent to which people felt they had an internal or external Locus of Control kind of like optimism vs. pessimism |
| inter-rater reliability | measure of how much agreement there is in ratings when using two or more raters or coders to rate personality or other behaviors |
| projective tests | personality assessment in which the participant is presented with a vague stimulus or situation and asked to interpret it or tell a story about what they see |
| Rorschach Inkblot Test | projective test the participant is asked to respond to a series of ambiguous inkblots |
| Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) | projective test participant is presented with a series of picture cards and asked to tell a story about what is going on in the scene |
| personality questionnaires | self-report instruments on which respondents indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree with a series of statements as they apply to their personality |
| rational (face valid) method | a method for developing questionnaire items that involves using reason or theory to come up with a question |
| Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2) | person responds to true/false statements similar to Banet's approach (ask people a lot of questions) tests for psychological disorders |
| NEO-PI | measures the five personality factors |
| MCMI | diagnoses personality disorders identifies people that are seriously disturbed |
| 16-PF | measures 16 personality factors |
| empirical method | a method for developing questionnaire items that focuses on including questions that characterize the group the questionnaire is intended to distinguish |
| Jeffrey Gray | BAS (sensitivity to rewards) BAS (sensitivity to punishments) extroverts vs. introverts |
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