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Accommodation: a form of adaptation in which an existing scheme is modified and a new one is created in response to experience
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Acronym: Technique for remembering names, phrases, or steps by using the first letter of each word to form a new, memorableword
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Adaptation: the process of adjusting schemes and experiences to each other to maintain equilibrium.
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Adolescent egocentrism: The assumption that everyone else shares one's thoughts, feelings, and concerns.
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Antecedent stimuli: Events that precede behavior
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Assimilation: a form of adaptation in which an experience in the environment is incorporated into an existing scheme
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Assimilation (in relation to culture): fully adopting the values and behaviors of the majority culture and rejecting one's own culture
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Attention: Focus on a stimulus
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Authoritarian parenting: uses authority negatively (excessively controlling)
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Authoritative parenting: uses authority positively (facilitates child's growth). Control depends on needs of child (some children need more structure & others need less)
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Automated basic skills: Skills that are applied without serious thought
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Automaticity: The ability to perform throughly learned tasks without much effort.
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Aversive stimulus: An unpleasant consequence that a person tries to avoid or escape
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Behavioral learning theories: Explanations of learning that emphasize observable changing in behavior
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Behaviorism theory of language development: the behavior of using language and language approximations (babbling) is rewarded.
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Biculturalism: maintaining ties to two cultures.
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Bioecological theory of development: Bronfenbrenner's theory describing the nested social and cultural contexts that shape development. Every person develops wihtin a microsystem, inside a mesosystem, embedded in an exosystem, all of which are a part of the macrosystem of the culture.
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Bottom-up Processing: Perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling then into a recognizable pattern
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Centration (centering): the tendency to focus on the most perceptually obvious aspect of an object or event to the exclusion of all others. A tall thin glass holds more liquid in it than a wide tumbler because of the height.
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Chain mnemonics: Memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element
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Chunking: Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units
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Classical conditioning: The process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to evoke a conditioned response
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Classification: the process of grouping objects on the basis of a common characteristic
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Cognitive behavior modification: Procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive principles for changing one's own behavior by means of self talk and self instruction
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Cognitive development: changes in the way a person thinks.
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Cognitive learning theories: Explanations of learning that focus on mental processes
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Cognitive View of Learning: General approach that views learning as an active mental process of acquiring, remembering, and using knowledge
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Collective monologue: children of this age will talk about what they are doing without really being involved in a conversation with others.
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Compensation: a change in one direction can be compensated for through a change in another direction.
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Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 years Can think logically about concrete objects. Can transform, reverse, and use systematic reasoning as long as the objects about which they are thinking are present.
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Conditioned stimulus: A previously neutral stimulus that evokes a particular response after having been paired with an unconditioned stimulus
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Consequences: Pleasant or unpleasant conditions that follow behaviors and affect the frequency of future behaviors
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Conservation: the idea that the "amount" of some substance stays the same regardless of its shape or the number of pieces into which it is divided.
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Context: The physical or emotional backdrop associated with an event
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conventional reasoning: The middle level of moral development in Kohlberg's theory. At this level, internalization is intermediate in the sense that individual's abide by certain standards (internal), but these essentially are the standards of others (external).
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Critical periods: time spans that are optimal for the development of certain capacities in the brain.
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Cues: Signals as to what behaviors will be reinforced or punished
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Decay: The weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time
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Decentering: can focus on more than one aspect at a time.
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Development: The orderly, durable changes in learners resulting from a combination of experience, learning, and maturation.
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Discrimination: Perception of and response to differences in stimuli
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Distrubuted practice: Practice in brief periods with rest intervals
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Domain-specific strategies: Consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular subject or problem area
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ecological theory: 
Bronfenbrenner's theory that consists of five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
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Egocentrism: the inability to interpret an event from someone else's point of view.
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Equilibrium: A state of cognitive balance between individuals' understanding of the world and their experiences.
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Erikson: 
Proposed that individuals go through 8 distinct, universal stages of development. Each stage consists of a developmental task that confronts individuals with a crisis.
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Extinction: The weakening and eventual elimination of a learned behavior as reinforcement is withdrawn
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Extrinsic reinforcers: Praise or rewards given to motivate people to engage in behavior that they might not engage in without them
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Flashbulb memory: Clear, vivid memories of emotuonally important events in your life
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Formal Operational Stage: 11-Adult. Can think abstractly (does not need to have concrete objects available). Can think systematically and hypothetically (what if...).
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General knowledge: Information that is useful in many different kinds of tasks; information that applies to situations
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Generalization: Carryover of behaviors skills or concepts from one setting or task to another
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Identity: if nothing is added or taken away, a material stays the same
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identity achievement: The identity status in which individuals have explored meaningful alternatives and and made a commitment.
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identity diffusion: The identity status in which individuals have neither explored meaningful alternatives (or exprienced a crisis) nor made a commitment.
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identity foreclosure: The identity status in which individuals have made a commitment but have not expored meaningful alternatives.
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identity moratorium: The identity status in which individuals are in the midst of exploring alternatives but their commitments are absent or vaguely defined.
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identity status: 
James Marcia came up with four classifications (based on Erikson) of this concept of identity They are based on exploration (examining meaningful alternative identities) and commitment (means showing a personal investment in an identity and staying with what it implies).
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Information processing: The human minds activity of taking in, storing, and using information
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Interference: The process that occurs when remembering certain information is hampered by the presence of other information
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Intrinsic reinforcers: Behaviors that a person enjoys engaging in for their own sake without any other reward
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Keyword method: System of associating new words or concepts withsimilar-sounding cue words and images
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KOHLBERG
Conventional Level (Stage 3 & 4): Stage 3 - Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships and Interpersonal Conformity.
Stage 4 - Social System and Conscience Orientation.
Conventional morality is seen through an individual being a good member of society and helping those close to them a priority. (Social relationships;compliance with social duties and laws)
65.
KOHLBERG
Implications for teaching in a classroom: Strategies for fostering moral development and values.
Every subject - even disciplines such as mathematics that may appear to lack obvious moral content - offers opportunities for helping students develop their skill in moral reasoning. Every group can become a learning community where values of mutual respect, sensitivity to others' needs and cooperation are emphasized and discussed.
66.
KOHLBERG
Implications for teaching in a classroom: Strategies of fostering moral development and values.
Role-playing opportunities help learners imagine what it would be like to be someone else. As young people discuss issues and try to work out how to deal with their differences, they begin to come to terms with the concepts of fairness and justice.
67.
KOHLBERG
Key Idea about Learning: Children's moral development begins with a focus on punishment and obedience and moves through 5 stages until in adulthood it reaches the 6th stage, in which moral decisions are based on universal moral principles. Ethical problem-solving helps students move to higher stages.
68.
KOHLBERG
Key Idea about Learning: There are three main levels of moral development: pre-conventional level (self-centered), conventional level (socially centered) and principled level (moral principles) occurs in three main stages.
69.
KOHLBERG
Post-conventional or Principled Level (Stage 5 & 6): Stage 5 - Social Contract of Individual Rights Orientation.
Stage 6 - Universal Ethical Principles.
Post-conventional is when individuals move beyond the conventional rules of their community to focus more broadly on what is best for society at large, and on ways of promoting justice in society (Ideal centered;moral principles)
70.
KOHLBERG
Pre-Conventional Level (Stage 1 & 2): Stage 1 - Punishment and Obedience Orientation.
Stage 2 - Instrumental and Exchange Orientation.
Pre-conventional morality is seen as a set of rules handed down by adults. (Self-centered; get rewards and avoid punishment)
71.
KOHLBERG
Theory of Moral Development: Moral reasoning is closely linked to cognitive development.
Complex six stage sequence of moral development taking place within three broad levels.
- Pre-conventional Level
- Conventional Level
- Post-conventional Level
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Lateralization: the specialization of the two sides of the brain. Yet, both sides have to work together in complex tasks.
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Learning: A change in an individual that results from experience
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Levels of processing theory: Theory that recall of information is based on how deeply it is processed
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Loci method: technique of associating items with specific places
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Long term memory: Permanent store of knowledge
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Maintenance rehearsal: Keeping information in working memory by repeating it to yourself
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Marginality: living in the majority but feeling alienated and uncomfortable in it and disconnected from the minority culture as well.
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Massed practice: Practice for a single extended period
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Maturation: changes which are genetically programmed—such as most forms of physical development and a lot of cognitive development.
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Metalinguistic awareness: understanding about one's own use of language.
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Mnemonics: techniques for remembering; also the art of memory
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Modeling: Imitation of others behavior
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moral development: 
Development with respect to the rules and conventions of just interactions between people.
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Myelin: the coating on the neuron fibers. When the brain goes through a process of myelination, that coating gets thicker and the information goes through better, as a result.
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Nativist Theory of language development: we are genetically programmed to learn and use language. Exposure to language triggers this development.
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Negative reinforcer: Release from an unpleasant situation given to strengthen behavior
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Neurons: cells that transmit and store information.
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Object permanence: the knowledge that even when you can't see an object, it is still there.
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Observational learning: Learning by observation and imitation of others
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Operant conditioning: The use of pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of a behavior
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Organization: The process of forming and using schemes in an effort to understand how the world works.
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Overgeneralization in language: occurs when a child uses a word to refer to a broader class of objects than is appropriate (e.g., using doggie to refer to all four-legged animals).
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Part learning: Breaking a list of rote learning items into shorter lists
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Peg-type mnemonics: Systems of associating items with cue words
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Perception: Interpretation of sensory information
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Personal Development: the growth of enduring personality traits that influence the way individuals interact with their physical and social environments.
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Personal development: changes in personality (psychology)
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Physical development: changes in the body
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Piaget's theory of language development: Negative feedback creates disequilibrium and the processes of adaptation: accommodation and assimilation.
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Plasticity: the brain of a young child is adaptable. If damage occurs to one area, other areas of the brain may be able to compensate.
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Positive reinforcer: Pleasurable consequence given to strengthen behavior
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postconventional reasoning: The highest level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, moral development is internalized and not based on external standards.
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Pragmatics: the rules for when and how to use language to be an effective communicator in a particular culture.
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Pre-operational stage: Piaget's second stage. Children approximate ages 2-7. Egocentrism, centration, lacks ability to reverse processes or to conserve.
106.
preconventional reasoning: 
The lowest level of Kohlberg's theory of moral development. At this level, the child shows no internalization of moral values, and more reasoning is controlled by external rewards and punishments.
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Premack Principle: Rule stating that enjoyable activities can be used to reinforce participation in less enjoyable activities
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Presentation punishment: An aversive stimulus following a behavior used to decrease the chances that the behavior will occur again
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Primary reinforcer: Food, water, or other consequence that satisfies a basic need
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Priming: Activating a concept in memory or the spread of activation from one concept to another
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Principles of development: Development is continuous, orderly, and gradual. Different people develop at different rates.
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Procedural memory: Long-term memory for how to do things
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Prototype: A best example or best representative of a category
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Puberty: the beginning of sexual maturity.
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Punishment: Unpleasant consequences used to weaken behavior
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Racial/ethnic pride: A positive self-concept about one's racial or ethnic heritage.
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Reconstruction: Recreating information by using memories, expectations, logic, and existing knowledge
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Reinforcer: A pleasurable consequence that maintains or increases a behavior
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Removal punishment: Withdrawal of a pleasant consequence that is reinforcing a behavior designed to decrease the chances that the behavior will recur
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Retrieval: Process of searching for and finding information in long-term memory
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Reversability: the ability to mentally trace a line of reasoning back to its beginning.
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Rote memorization: Remembering information by repetition without necessary understanding the meaning of the information
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Schemes: mental patterns, operations, and systems.
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Script: Schema or expected plan for the ssequence of steps in a common event such as buying groceries or ordering take-out pizza
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Secondary reinforcer: A consequence that people learn to value through its association with a primary reinforcer
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self esteem: 
Also called self-image and self-worth, the individual's overall conception of himself or herself.
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Self regulation: Rewarding or punishing one's own behavior
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Self-concept: Cognitive. What you think about yourself. An appraisal of one's own physical, social, and academic competence.
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Self-esteem (or self-worth): Emotional. How you feel about yourself. An emotional reaction to or an evaluation of the self.
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Semiotic function: the ability to use symbols—language, pictures, signs, or gestures—to represent actions or objects mentally. Pre-operational children are able to use symbols to represent things that are not present, a major accomplishment.
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Sensori-motor stage: First stage of Piaget. 0-2 years. Children develop an understanding the world using their senses and physical abilities (motor capacities).
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Sensory Memory: System thatholds sensory information very briefly
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Separated (in relation to culture): associating only with members of one's own culture
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Serial-position effect: The tendency to remember the beginning and the end but not the middle of a list
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Seriation: the ability to order objects according to increasing or decreasing length, weight, or volume
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Shaping: The teaching of a new skill or behavior by means of reinforcement for small steps towards desired goal
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Short term memory: Component of memory system that holds information for about 20 seconds
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Skinner's box: An apparatus for observing animal behavior in experiments in operant conditioning
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Social Cognitive Theory of language development: parents model language and children learn from watching and listening to their parents.
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Social development: the advances people make in their ability to interact and get along with others.
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Social development: changes in the way a person interacts with other people
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Social experience: the process of interacting—usually verbally—with others.
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Social learning theory: Learning theory that emphasizes not only reinforcement but also the effects of cues on thought and of thought on action
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Sociocultural Theory of language development: (Vygotsky) parents scaffold their children's use of language.
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Stimuli: Environmental conditions that active the senses
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Synapse: the part of the neuron that allows communication between neurons.
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Syntax: word order (grammar).
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Systematic reasoning: the process of using logical thought to reach a conclusion. This process is not fully available to thinkers until formal operations.
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Time out: Procedure of removing a student from a situation in which misbehavior was being reinforced
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Top-down processing: Perceiving based on the context and the patterns you expect to occur in that situation
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Transformation: the ability to mentally trace the process of changing from one state to another. Shell games play on this ability (or inability).
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Turn-taking in conversation: not monopolizing the conversation—being able to listen and respond appropriately to another person using language.
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Unconditioned response: A behavior that is prompted automatically by a stimulus
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Unconditioned stimulus: A stimulus that naturally evokes a particular response
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Undergeneralization in language: occurs when a child uses a word too narrowly such as "kitty" for a specific cat but not for cats in general.
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Vicarious learning: Learning based on observation of the consequences of others' behavior
157.
Visuospatial skecthpad: Part of working memory. A holding system for visual and spatial information
158.
Working memory: The information that you are focusing on at a given moment
