popcorn with chem
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Created by:
sundar2sek on December 19, 2010
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466 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 empirical formula | The simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in a particle of the substance |
| molecular formula | The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the substance |
| isotopes | Atoms that contain the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons |
| vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection, detection | Five stages of mass spectrometry |
| positive | Ionization by bombardment with a stream of high energy electrons results in the formation of singly charged _______ ions. |
| electric | Acceleration occurs in a(n) __________ field. |
| magnetic | Deflection occurs by an external _________ field. |
| 2 | The visible region of the spectrum is formed by electrons dropping back to the n=___ level. |
| decrease | Melting points ________ down Group 1 because the atoms become larger and the metallic bond strength decreases. |
| increase | Melting points ________ down Group 7 because van der Waals' forces increase down the group. |
| electronegativity | A relative measure of the attraction that an atom has for a shared pair of electrons when it is covalently bonded to another atom. |
| decreases, increases | The first ionization energy generally ________ down a group and __________ across a period. |
| increases | Reactivity ________ down Group 1. |
| decreases | Reactivity ________ down Group 7. |
| basic, acidic | The oxides of Period 3 elements change from ________ to ________ as one moves across the period. |
| neutral, acidic | The chlorides of Period 3 elements move from ________ to _______ as one moves across the period. |
| variable oxidation states, formation of complex ions, coloured complexes, catalytic behavior | 4 characteristic properties of transition elements |
| strongest | Triple bonds are the shortest and _________ (strongest, weakest) of bonds. |
| polar | An electronegativity difference of approximately 1.7 will result in a __________ bond. |
| linear | 2 charge centers, no unshared pairs on central atom |
| trigonal planar | 3 charge centers, no unshared pairs on central atom |
| tetrahedral | 4 charge centers, no unshared pairs on central atom |
| trigonal bipyramidal | 5 charge centers, no unshared pairs on central atom |
| octahedral | 6 charge centers, no unshared pairs on central atom |
| square planar | 4 charge centers, two unshared pairs on central atom |
| bent, V-shaped | 2 charge centers, two unshared pairs on central atom |
| trigonal pyramid | 3 charge centers, one unshared pair on central atom |
| square pyramid | 5 charge centers, one unshared pair on central atom |
| 180 | Bond angles in linear shape |
| 120 | Bond angles in trigonal planar shape |
| 109.5 | Bond angles in tetrahedral shape |
| 90, 120, 180 | Bond angles in trigonal bipyramidal shape |
| 90, 180 | Bond angles in octahedral shape |
| 107 | Bond angles in trigonal pyramid shape |
| 105 | Bond angles in bent/V-shaped |
| F, N, O | Hydrogen bonding occurs between hydrogen and the three elements ___, ____, and ___. |
| diamond | Allotrope of carbon with sp3 hybridization, does not conduct electricity |
| graphite | Allotrope of carbon with sp2 hybridization, conducts electricity |
| buckminsterfullerene | Allotrope of carbon with sp2 and sp3 hybridization, conducts electricity |
| delocalized electrons | Electrical conductivity is caused by the presence of __________. |
| sigma | A single bond consists of one ______ bond. |
| sigma, pi | A double bond consists of one_____ bond and one _____ bond. |
| sigma, pi | A triple bond consists of one _____ bond and two _____ bonds. |
| exothermic reaction | Enthalpy change = negative, products more stable than reactants |
| endothermic reaction | Enthalpy change = positive, reactants more stable than products |
| reactants, products | When calculating enthalpy changes from bond enthalpies: __________ minus _________. |
| size, charge | The lattice enthalpy depends on the _____ and _____ of the ions. |
| always spontaneous | Negative enthalpy change, positive entropy change |
| never spontaneous | Positive enthalpy change, negative entropy change |
| spontaneous at low temperatures | Negative enthalpy change, negative entropy change |
| spontaneous at high temperatures | Positive enthalpy change, positive entropy change |
| collision theory | For a reaction to occur, the particles must collide, they must collide with the appropriate orientation, and they must collide with sufficient energy. |
| activation energy | The minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to occur |
| s^-1 | units for first order reaction |
| dm^3 mol^-1 s^-1 | units for second order reaction |
| dm^6 mol^-2 s^-1 | units for third order reaction |
| molecularity | The number of species taking part in any specified step of the reaction |
| left | Increasing temperature for an exothermic reaction shifts the reaction ______. |
| right | Increasing the temperature for an endothermic reaction shifts the reaction ______. |
| Haber | The ______ process is used to produce ammonia. |
| Contact | The ______ process is used to produce sulfuric acid. |
| temperature | An increase in ________ increases the vapor pressure. |
| HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 | 3 strong acids |
| NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2 | 3 strong bases |
| H2CO3, carboxylic acids | Weak acids |
| NH3, amines | Weak bases |
| pH | -log [H+] |
| 1 x 10^-14 | Kw = _____ |
| Kw | Ka x Kb = _______ |
| 14 | pKa + pKb = _____ |
| neutral | strong acid + strong base ----> ______ |
| acidic | strong acid + weak base -----> _______ |
| basic | strong base + weak acid -----> ________ |
| positive, negative | When determining the emf for two half cells: more _______ cell minus more _______ cell |
| position in electrochemical series, concentration, nature of electrode | Factors affecting discharge of ions during electrolysis |
| current, charge | Factors affecting quantity of products discharged during electrolysis |
| increase | Boiling points for the alkanes __________ as the length of the carbon chain increases. |
| primary | A __________ alcohol or halogenoalkane is one that has one R-group bonded to the central carbon atom. |
| secondary | A __________ alcohol or halogenoalkane is one that has two R-groups bonded to the central carbon atom. |
| tertiary | A __________ alcohol or halogenoalkane is one that has three R-groups bonded to the central carbon atom. |
| low | Due to the strength of the C-C and C-H bonds and low polarity, the alkanes have a relatively _______ reactivity. |
| CO2 and H2O | Products of complete combustion reactions |
| UV light | Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens in the presence of ____________. |
| Homolytic | ___________ fission results in the formation of free radicals. |
| Initiation | A diatomic halogen breaks into two free radicals. |
| Propagation | When halogen free radicals come into contact with a methane molecule, they combine to produce hydrogen chloride and a methane radical. |
| Termination | Two radicals react together. |
| alkanes | Alkenes undergo addition reactions to form ________________. |
| decolourization of bromine | Test for an alkene |
| acidified potassium dichromate | Ethanol can be oxidized by _____________________. |
| aldehyde, carboxylic acid | A primary alcohol can be oxidized to a(n) ______________ and then to a(n) _______________. |
| ketone | Secondary alcohols can be oxidized to a ______________. |
| red-orange, green | A color change from ___________ to ___________ indicates the presence of ethanol in the breathalyser. |
| reduced | In the breathalyser, the dichromate ion is ___________ to chromium (III) ions. |
| SN2 | Primary halogenoalkanes follow the _______ mechanism of nucleophilic substitution. |
| SN1 | Tertiary halogenoalkanes follow the _______ mechanism of nucleophilic substitution. |
| SN2 | The mechanism that forms a transition state with a high activation energy is the _____ mechanism. |
| SN1 | The mechanism that forms a carbocation in the rate-determining step is the _____ mechanism. |
| molecularity | Refers to the number of reactants involved in the rate-determining step of the mechanism. |
| ester | alcohol + carboxylic acid ------> ? |
| iodoalkanes | The most reactive halogenoalkanes are the ____________________. |
| faster | Tertiary halogenoalkanes react _____________ than primary halogenoalkanes. |
| hot alcoholic sodium hydroxide | Halogenoalkanes undergo elimination reactions in the presence of _____________. |
| condensation | Esters are formed through a ____________ reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid. |
| two | Condensation polymerization can occur if both of the reacting molecules contain _____ functional group(s) that can undergo condensation. |
| cis | The isomer in which the substituents are on the same side of the double bond. |
| trans | The isomer in which the substituents are on opposite sides of the double bond. |
| atomic radius | decreases in size from left to right, because the nuclear charge increases |
| ionic radius | decreases across the period until the formation of the negative ions, then there is a sudden increase followed by a steady decrease to the end |
| electronegativity | increases across the period, because the nuclear charge increases |
| oxides | Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P4O10, SO3, Cl2O7, Cl2O, SO2, P4O6 |
| Chlorides | NaCL, MgCl2, Al2Cl6, SiCl4, PCl3, PCl5, Cl2 |
| melting point | steadily increases from sodium to aluminium, then increases drastically for silicon, decreases from phosphorus to argon |
| Dissolves to give free ions | NaCl and MgCl2 reaction with water |
| Al2Cl6 reaction with water | hydrolysis to give [Al(h2O)6]3+ and Cl- ions |
| Ionic chlorides | NaCl and MgCl2 |
| Covalent chlorides | Al2Cl6, SiCl4, PCl3, PCl5 Cl2 |
| Oxides which are insoluble in water | Al2O3 and SiO2 |
| Relative atomic mass | The weighted mean of the relative isotopic masses of an element on the scale where carbon-12 is exactly 12 |
| Relative molecular mass | The sum of the relative atomic masses of the constituent atoms of a molecule |
| Empirical formula | A formula showing the lowest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound |
| Molecular formula | A chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the types and numbers of atoms present in a molecule of a compound (but not the structure) |
| Solute | Substance that is dissolved |
| Solvent | A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances |
| Solution | A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances |
| Concentration | The mass or number of mol of solute in a given volume of solution (represented with square brackets) |
| Mass number | The sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atomic nucleus |
| Atomic number | The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom |
| Continuous spectrum | A spectrum of light in which there are no gaps, so that each region blends directly into the next |
| Line spectrum | A spectrum showing only certain discrete wavelengths/lines, on a black background |
| Group | A vertical column of the periodic table |
| Period | A horizontal row of the periodic table |
| First ionization energy | The amount of energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of atoms in the gaseous state |
| Electronegativity | A measure of the attraction that an atom in a chemical compound has to bonded electron pairs |
| Exothermic reaction | A reaction that releases heat energy to the surroundings ΔH=- |
| Endothermic reaction | A reaction that absorbs heat energy from the surroundings ΔH=+ |
| Standard enthaply change of reaction | The difference batewwn the enthalpy og the products and the enthalpy of the reactants under standard conditions represented ΔH |
| Average bond enthalpy | The the amount of energy required to break 1 mole of a given type of bond averaged across a range of compounds in the gaseous state |
| Rate of reaction | The change in mass/volume/concentration of reactants or products over time |
| Activation energy | The minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction (Ea) |
| Strong acid | An acid that readily dissociates in aqueous solution |
| Weak acid | An acid that dissociates to a small extent/partially in aqueous solution |
| Strong base | A base that readily accepts hydrogen ions in aqueous solution |
| Weak base | A base that partially accepts hydrogen ions in aqueous solution |
| Acidic solution | pH<7 |
| Neutral solution | pH=7 |
| Alkaline solution | pH>7 |
| Reduction | Gain of electrons |
| Oxidation | Loss of electrons |
| Oxidizing agent | A substance that oxidizes another substance and itself reduces |
| Reducing agent | A substance that reduces another substance and itself oxidizes |
| Structural formula | A formula that shows the arrangement of all atoms and bonds in a molecule (can be full, condensed, or skeletal) |
| Alkene | Results in decolouration of solution with bromine |
| Alkane | Does not result in decolouration of solution with bromine |
| Precision | An expression of how closely a group of measurements agree with one another |
| Accuracy | An expression of how close the measured value is to the 'correct' or 'true' value |
| element | a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances. |
| atom | smallest part of an element. |
| compound | substance that contains more than one element. |
| empirical formula | this shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in a particle of the substance. |
| molecular formula | shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the substance. |
| structural formula | this shows the arrangement of atoms an dbonds within a molecule. |
| molar mass | the mass of one mole of any substance. |
| relative atomic mass | the weighted mean of all the naturally occurring isotopes of the elemtn relative to carbon-12 |
| concentration | the amount of solute (dissolved substance) in a known volume of solution (solute plus solvent). |
| standard solution | a solution of known concentration. |
| ideal gas | a gas that obeys the gas laws |
| real gases | a gas that hase some attractive force between the particles and do occupy some space so they do not exactly obey the gas laws. |
| nucleons | all the collective protons and neutrons |
| mass number | equal to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom |
| atomic number | equal to the number of protons in the nucleus and to the number of electrons in the atom |
| isotope | atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but with different number of neutrons |
| mass spectrometer | vaporized sample is injected, ionized by being bombarded with a beam of electrons until one electron is shoved off, accelerated through parallel plates where the ion is under the influence of an electric field, deflected by a magnetic field depending on mass and charge, and detected. |
| radioisotopes | isotopes of elements whose nuclei break down spontaneously. they are used in nuclear power generation, the sterilization of surgical instruments, crime detection, finding cracks in metals, and food preservation. |
| line spectrum | each element has its own characteristic spectrum that is not continuous |
| first ionization energy | the energy required to remove one electron from an atom in its gaseous state |
| electronic configuration | the arrangement of electrons in an atom |
| valence electrons | the electrons in the highest energy level |
| group | vertical columns in the periodic table that holds elements with the same number of valence electrons |
| period | horizontal rows in the periodic table that holds elements with the same number of occupied energy shells |
| atomic radius | the distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron |
| cation | positive ion. contain fewer electrons than protons so the electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron is greater and ion is smaller than the parent atom. |
| anion | negative ion. contain more electrons than protons so it is larger than the parent atom. |
| periodicity | the repeating pattern of physical and chemical properties shown by the different periods. |
| monoatomic molecule | molecule with a single atom |
| electronegativity | a relative measure of the attraction an atom has for a shared pair of electrons when it is covalently bonded to another atom |
| metalloid | an element that possesses some of the properties of a metal and some of a non-metal |
| amphoteric | substance that can be either acidic of basic. |
| Ionic bond | when electrons are transferred from one atom to another to form ions with complete outer shells of elections. |
| Covalent bond | involves the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons so that each atom in the molecule achieves an inert gas configuration. |
| lewis dot structure | it is the electron dot structure in which all the valence electrons are shown |
| polar bond | when their is an unequal distribution of charge in a molecule |
| valence shell electron pair repulsion | this states that pairs of electrons arrange themselves around the central atom so that they are as far apart from eachother as possible |
| Van der waals | forces that are created when an instantaneous dipole induces another dipole in a neighboring particle resutling in a weak attraction between the two particles |
| metallic bond | the attraction that two neighboring positive ions have for the delocalized electrons between them |
| exothermic | when the heat is given out to the surroundings; the bonds in the products are stronger than the bonds in the reactants |
| endothermic | heat is absorbed; bonds in the reactants are stronger than the bonds in the products |
| heat | a measure of the total energy in a given amount of substance |
| temperature | a measure of the average kinetic energy of the substance |
| enthalpy | the internal energy stored in the reactants |
| average bond enthalpy | can only be measured if products and reactants are in a gaseous state. |
| Hess's law | enthalpy change for a reaction depends only on the difference between the enthalpy of the products and the enthalpy of the reactants. |
| rate of reaction | the increase or decrease in concentration of one of the products per unit time |
| collision theory | for a reaction to occur, the particles must collide, they must collide with the proper orientation, and they must collide with enough force to bring about the reaction. |
| activation energy | the minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to occur |
| equilibrium | when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction, and both reactions continue to take place |
| closed system | a system in which neither matter nor energy can be lost or gained |
| le chatelier's principle | if a system at equilibrium is subjected to a small change the equilibrium tends to shift so as to minimize the effect of the change |
| acid | a substance which produces hydrogen ions |
| base | a substance than can neutralize an acid |
| Bronsted-Lowry Acid | substance that donates a proton |
| Bronsted-Lowry Base | susbtance that accepts a proton |
| Lewis Base | substance that donates a pair of electrons |
| Lewis Acid | substance that accepts a pair of electrons |
| litmus | indicator that turns red in acid and blue in base |
| phenolphthalein | substance that turns clear in acid and pink in base |
| methyl orange | substance that turns red in acid and yellow in base |
| strong acid | an acid that is completely dissociated into its ions |
| weak acid | an acid that is only partially dissociated into its ions |
| dilute | a low number of moles of solute per litre of solution |
| concentrated | a high number of moles of solute per litre of solution |
| corrosive | chemically reactive |
| oxidation | the loss of one or more electrons from a substance |
| reduction | the gain of one or more electrons for a substance |
| oxidizing agent | a substance that readily accepts electrons, and readily oxidizes other agents |
| electrolytic cell | a device that is used to make non-spontaneous redox reactions occur by providing energy in the form of electricity from an external source |
| structural isomers | compounds that have the same molecular formula but a different structural formula |
| heterolytic fission | both of the shared electrons go to one of the atoms resulting in a negative and a positive ion |
| homolytic fission | each of the two atoms forming the bodn retains one of the shared electrons resulting in the formation of two free radicals |
| systematic error | if the instrument used has been calibrated wrongly or if the person using it consistently misreads it, the measurements will differ by the same amount |
| random uncertainty | occur if there is an equal probability of the reading being too high or too low from one measuremen to the next |
| precision | refers to how close several experimental measurements of the same quantity are to eachother |
| accuracy | refers to how close the reading is to the true value |
| empirical formula | The simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in a particle of the substance |
| molecular formula | The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the substance |
| isotopes | Atoms that contain the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons |
| vaporization, ionization, acceleration, deflection, detection | Five stages of mass spectrometry |
| positive | Ionization by bombardment with a stream of high energy electrons results in the formation of singly charged _______ ions. |
| electric | Acceleration occurs in a(n) __________ field. |
| magnetic | Deflection occurs by an external _________ field. |
| 2 | The visible region of the spectrum is formed by electrons dropping back to the n=___ level. |
| decrease | Melting points ________ down Group 1 because the atoms become larger and the metallic bond strength decreases. |
| increase | Melting points ________ down Group 7 because van der Waals' forces increase down the group. |
| electronegativity | A relative measure of the attraction that an atom has for a shared pair of electrons when it is covalently bonded to another atom. |
| decreases, increases | The first ionization energy generally ________ down a group and __________ across a period. |
| increases | Reactivity ________ down Group 1. |
| decreases | Reactivity ________ down Group 7. |
| basic, acidic | The oxides of Period 3 elements change from ________ to ________ as one moves across the period. |
| neutral, acidic | The chlorides of Period 3 elements move from ________ to _______ as one moves across the period. |
| variable oxidation states, formation of complex ions, coloured complexes, catalytic behavior | 4 characteristic properties of transition elements |
| strongest | Triple bonds are the shortest and _________ (strongest, weakest) of bonds. |
| polar | An electronegativity difference of approximately 1.7 will result in a __________ bond. |
| linear | 2 charge centers, no unshared pairs on central atom |
| trigonal planar | 3 charge centers, no unshared pairs on central atom |
| tetrahedral | 4 charge centers, no unshared pairs on central atom |
| trigonal bipyramidal | 5 charge centers, no unshared pairs on central atom |
| octahedral | 6 charge centers, no unshared pairs on central atom |
| square planar | 4 charge centers, two unshared pairs on central atom |
| bent, V-shaped | 2 charge centers, two unshared pairs on central atom |
| trigonal pyramid | 3 charge centers, one unshared pair on central atom |
| square pyramid | 5 charge centers, one unshared pair on central atom |
| 180 | Bond angles in linear shape |
| 120 | Bond angles in trigonal planar shape |
| 109.5 | Bond angles in tetrahedral shape |
| 90, 120, 180 | Bond angles in trigonal bipyramidal shape |
| 90, 180 | Bond angles in octahedral shape |
| 107 | Bond angles in trigonal pyramid shape |
| 105 | Bond angles in bent/V-shaped |
| F, N, O | Hydrogen bonding occurs between hydrogen and the three elements ___, ____, and ___. |
| diamond | Allotrope of carbon with sp3 hybridization, does not conduct electricity |
| graphite | Allotrope of carbon with sp2 hybridization, conducts electricity |
| buckminsterfullerene | Allotrope of carbon with sp2 and sp3 hybridization, conducts electricity |
| delocalized electrons | Electrical conductivity is caused by the presence of __________. |
| sigma | A single bond consists of one ______ bond. |
| sigma, pi | A double bond consists of one_____ bond and one _____ bond. |
| sigma, pi | A triple bond consists of one _____ bond and two _____ bonds. |
| exothermic reaction | Enthalpy change = negative, products more stable than reactants |
| endothermic reaction | Enthalpy change = positive, reactants more stable than products |
| reactants, products | When calculating enthalpy changes from bond enthalpies: __________ minus _________. |
| size, charge | The lattice enthalpy depends on the _____ and _____ of the ions. |
| always spontaneous | Negative enthalpy change, positive entropy change |
| never spontaneous | Positive enthalpy change, negative entropy change |
| spontaneous at low temperatures | Negative enthalpy change, negative entropy change |
| spontaneous at high temperatures | Positive enthalpy change, positive entropy change |
| collision theory | For a reaction to occur, the particles must collide, they must collide with the appropriate orientation, and they must collide with sufficient energy. |
| activation energy | The minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to occur |
| s^-1 | units for first order reaction |
| dm^3 mol^-1 s^-1 | units for second order reaction |
| dm^6 mol^-2 s^-1 | units for third order reaction |
| molecularity | The number of species taking part in any specified step of the reaction |
| left | Increasing temperature for an exothermic reaction shifts the reaction ______. |
| right | Increasing the temperature for an endothermic reaction shifts the reaction ______. |
| Haber | The ______ process is used to produce ammonia. |
| Contact | The ______ process is used to produce sulfuric acid. |
| temperature | An increase in ________ increases the vapor pressure. |
| HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 | 3 strong acids |
| NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)2 | 3 strong bases |
| H2CO3, carboxylic acids | Weak acids |
| NH3, amines | Weak bases |
| pH | -log [H+] |
| 1 x 10^-14 | Kw = _____ |
| Kw | Ka x Kb = _______ |
| 14 | pKa + pKb = _____ |
| neutral | strong acid + strong base ----> ______ |
| acidic | strong acid + weak base -----> _______ |
| basic | strong base + weak acid -----> ________ |
| positive, negative | When determining the emf for two half cells: more _______ cell minus more _______ cell |
| position in electrochemical series, concentration, nature of electrode | Factors affecting discharge of ions during electrolysis |
| current, charge | Factors affecting quantity of products discharged during electrolysis |
| increase | Boiling points for the alkanes __________ as the length of the carbon chain increases. |
| primary | A __________ alcohol or halogenoalkane is one that has one R-group bonded to the central carbon atom. |
| secondary | A __________ alcohol or halogenoalkane is one that has two R-groups bonded to the central carbon atom. |
| tertiary | A __________ alcohol or halogenoalkane is one that has three R-groups bonded to the central carbon atom. |
| low | Due to the strength of the C-C and C-H bonds and low polarity, the alkanes have a relatively _______ reactivity. |
| CO2 and H2O | Products of complete combustion reactions |
| UV light | Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens in the presence of ____________. |
| Homolytic | ___________ fission results in the formation of free radicals. |
| Initiation | A diatomic halogen breaks into two free radicals. |
| Propagation | When halogen free radicals come into contact with a methane molecule, they combine to produce hydrogen chloride and a methane radical. |
| Termination | Two radicals react together. |
| alkanes | Alkenes undergo addition reactions to form ________________. |
| decolourization of bromine | Test for an alkene |
| acidified potassium dichromate | Ethanol can be oxidized by _____________________. |
| aldehyde, carboxylic acid | A primary alcohol can be oxidized to a(n) ______________ and then to a(n) _______________. |
| ketone | Secondary alcohols can be oxidized to a ______________. |
| red-orange, green | A color change from ___________ to ___________ indicates the presence of ethanol in the breathalyser. |
| reduced | In the breathalyser, the dichromate ion is ___________ to chromium (III) ions. |
| SN2 | Primary halogenoalkanes follow the _______ mechanism of nucleophilic substitution. |
| SN1 | Tertiary halogenoalkanes follow the _______ mechanism of nucleophilic substitution. |
| SN2 | The mechanism that forms a transition state with a high activation energy is the _____ mechanism. |
| SN1 | The mechanism that forms a carbocation in the rate-determining step is the _____ mechanism. |
| molecularity | Refers to the number of reactants involved in the rate-determining step of the mechanism. |
| ester | alcohol + carboxylic acid ------> ? |
| iodoalkanes | The most reactive halogenoalkanes are the ____________________. |
| faster | Tertiary halogenoalkanes react _____________ than primary halogenoalkanes. |
| hot alcoholic sodium hydroxide | Halogenoalkanes undergo elimination reactions in the presence of _____________. |
| condensation | Esters are formed through a ____________ reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid. |
| two | Condensation polymerization can occur if both of the reacting molecules contain _____ functional group(s) that can undergo condensation. |
| cis | The isomer in which the substituents are on the same side of the double bond. |
| trans | The isomer in which the substituents are on opposite sides of the double bond. |
| atomic radius | decreases in size from left to right, because the nuclear charge increases |
| ionic radius | decreases across the period until the formation of the negative ions, then there is a sudden increase followed by a steady decrease to the end |
| electronegativity | increases across the period, because the nuclear charge increases |
| oxides | Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P4O10, SO3, Cl2O7, Cl2O, SO2, P4O6 |
| Chlorides | NaCL, MgCl2, Al2Cl6, SiCl4, PCl3, PCl5, Cl2 |
| melting point | steadily increases from sodium to aluminium, then increases drastically for silicon, decreases from phosphorus to argon |
| Dissolves to give free ions | NaCl and MgCl2 reaction with water |
| Al2Cl6 reaction with water | hydrolysis to give [Al(h2O)6]3+ and Cl- ions |
| Ionic chlorides | NaCl and MgCl2 |
| Covalent chlorides | Al2Cl6, SiCl4, PCl3, PCl5 Cl2 |
| Oxides which are insoluble in water | Al2O3 and SiO2 |
| Relative atomic mass | The weighted mean of the relative isotopic masses of an element on the scale where carbon-12 is exactly 12 |
| Relative molecular mass | The sum of the relative atomic masses of the constituent atoms of a molecule |
| Empirical formula | A formula showing the lowest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound |
| Molecular formula | A chemical formula of a molecular compound that shows the types and numbers of atoms present in a molecule of a compound (but not the structure) |
| Solute | Substance that is dissolved |
| Solvent | A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances |
| Solution | A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances |
| Concentration | The mass or number of mol of solute in a given volume of solution (represented with square brackets) |
| Mass number | The sum of the number of neutrons and protons in an atomic nucleus |
| Atomic number | The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom |
| Continuous spectrum | A spectrum of light in which there are no gaps, so that each region blends directly into the next |
| Line spectrum | A spectrum showing only certain discrete wavelengths/lines, on a black background |
| Group | A vertical column of the periodic table |
| Period | A horizontal row of the periodic table |
| First ionization energy | The amount of energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of atoms in the gaseous state |
| Electronegativity | A measure of the attraction that an atom in a chemical compound has to bonded electron pairs |
| Exothermic reaction | A reaction that releases heat energy to the surroundings ΔH=- |
| Endothermic reaction | A reaction that absorbs heat energy from the surroundings ΔH=+ |
| Standard enthaply change of reaction | The difference batewwn the enthalpy og the products and the enthalpy of the reactants under standard conditions represented ΔH |
| Average bond enthalpy | The the amount of energy required to break 1 mole of a given type of bond averaged across a range of compounds in the gaseous state |
| Rate of reaction | The change in mass/volume/concentration of reactants or products over time |
| Activation energy | The minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction (Ea) |
| Strong acid | An acid that readily dissociates in aqueous solution |
| Weak acid | An acid that dissociates to a small extent/partially in aqueous solution |
| Strong base | A base that readily accepts hydrogen ions in aqueous solution |
| Weak base | A base that partially accepts hydrogen ions in aqueous solution |
| Acidic solution | pH<7 |
| Neutral solution | pH=7 |
| Alkaline solution | pH>7 |
| Reduction | Gain of electrons |
| Oxidation | Loss of electrons |
| Oxidizing agent | A substance that oxidizes another substance and itself reduces |
| Reducing agent | A substance that reduces another substance and itself oxidizes |
| Structural formula | A formula that shows the arrangement of all atoms and bonds in a molecule (can be full, condensed, or skeletal) |
| Alkene | Results in decolouration of solution with bromine |
| Alkane | Does not result in decolouration of solution with bromine |
| Precision | An expression of how closely a group of measurements agree with one another |
| Accuracy | An expression of how close the measured value is to the 'correct' or 'true' value |
| element | a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances. |
| atom | smallest part of an element. |
| compound | substance that contains more than one element. |
| empirical formula | this shows the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element in a particle of the substance. |
| molecular formula | shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the substance. |
| structural formula | this shows the arrangement of atoms an dbonds within a molecule. |
| molar mass | the mass of one mole of any substance. |
| relative atomic mass | the weighted mean of all the naturally occurring isotopes of the elemtn relative to carbon-12 |
| concentration | the amount of solute (dissolved substance) in a known volume of solution (solute plus solvent). |
| standard solution | a solution of known concentration. |
| ideal gas | a gas that obeys the gas laws |
| real gases | a gas that hase some attractive force between the particles and do occupy some space so they do not exactly obey the gas laws. |
| nucleons | all the collective protons and neutrons |
| mass number | equal to the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom |
| atomic number | equal to the number of protons in the nucleus and to the number of electrons in the atom |
| isotope | atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but with different number of neutrons |
| mass spectrometer | vaporized sample is injected, ionized by being bombarded with a beam of electrons until one electron is shoved off, accelerated through parallel plates where the ion is under the influence of an electric field, deflected by a magnetic field depending on mass and charge, and detected. |
| radioisotopes | isotopes of elements whose nuclei break down spontaneously. they are used in nuclear power generation, the sterilization of surgical instruments, crime detection, finding cracks in metals, and food preservation. |
| line spectrum | each element has its own characteristic spectrum that is not continuous |
| first ionization energy | the energy required to remove one electron from an atom in its gaseous state |
| electronic configuration | the arrangement of electrons in an atom |
| valence electrons | the electrons in the highest energy level |
| group | vertical columns in the periodic table that holds elements with the same number of valence electrons |
| period | horizontal rows in the periodic table that holds elements with the same number of occupied energy shells |
| atomic radius | the distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron |
| cation | positive ion. contain fewer electrons than protons so the electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and the outermost electron is greater and ion is smaller than the parent atom. |
| anion | negative ion. contain more electrons than protons so it is larger than the parent atom. |
| periodicity | the repeating pattern of physical and chemical properties shown by the different periods. |
| monoatomic molecule | molecule with a single atom |
| electronegativity | a relative measure of the attraction an atom has for a shared pair of electrons when it is covalently bonded to another atom |
| metalloid | an element that possesses some of the properties of a metal and some of a non-metal |
| amphoteric | substance that can be either acidic of basic. |
| Ionic bond | when electrons are transferred from one atom to another to form ions with complete outer shells of elections. |
| Covalent bond | involves the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons so that each atom in the molecule achieves an inert gas configuration. |
| lewis dot structure | it is the electron dot structure in which all the valence electrons are shown |
| polar bond | when their is an unequal distribution of charge in a molecule |
| valence shell electron pair repulsion | this states that pairs of electrons arrange themselves around the central atom so that they are as far apart from eachother as possible |
| Van der waals | forces that are created when an instantaneous dipole induces another dipole in a neighboring particle resutling in a weak attraction between the two particles |
| metallic bond | the attraction that two neighboring positive ions have for the delocalized electrons between them |
| exothermic | when the heat is given out to the surroundings; the bonds in the products are stronger than the bonds in the reactants |
| endothermic | heat is absorbed; bonds in the reactants are stronger than the bonds in the products |
| heat | a measure of the total energy in a given amount of substance |
| temperature | a measure of the average kinetic energy of the substance |
| enthalpy | the internal energy stored in the reactants |
| average bond enthalpy | can only be measured if products and reactants are in a gaseous state. |
| Hess's law | enthalpy change for a reaction depends only on the difference between the enthalpy of the products and the enthalpy of the reactants. |
| rate of reaction | the increase or decrease in concentration of one of the products per unit time |
| collision theory | for a reaction to occur, the particles must collide, they must collide with the proper orientation, and they must collide with enough force to bring about the reaction. |
| activation energy | the minimum amount of energy required for a reaction to occur |
| equilibrium | when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction, and both reactions continue to take place |
| closed system | a system in which neither matter nor energy can be lost or gained |
| le chatelier's principle | if a system at equilibrium is subjected to a small change the equilibrium tends to shift so as to minimize the effect of the change |
| acid | a substance which produces hydrogen ions |
| base | a substance than can neutralize an acid |
| Bronsted-Lowry Acid | substance that donates a proton |
| Bronsted-Lowry Base | susbtance that accepts a proton |
| Lewis Base | substance that donates a pair of electrons |
| Lewis Acid | substance that accepts a pair of electrons |
| litmus | indicator that turns red in acid and blue in base |
| phenolphthalein | substance that turns clear in acid and pink in base |
| methyl orange | substance that turns red in acid and yellow in base |
| strong acid | an acid that is completely dissociated into its ions |
| weak acid | an acid that is only partially dissociated into its ions |
| dilute | a low number of moles of solute per litre of solution |
| concentrated | a high number of moles of solute per litre of solution |
| corrosive | chemically reactive |
| oxidation | the loss of one or more electrons from a substance |
| reduction | the gain of one or more electrons for a substance |
| oxidizing agent | a substance that readily accepts electrons, and readily oxidizes other agents |
| electrolytic cell | a device that is used to make non-spontaneous redox reactions occur by providing energy in the form of electricity from an external source |
| structural isomers | compounds that have the same molecular formula but a different structural formula |
| heterolytic fission | both of the shared electrons go to one of the atoms resulting in a negative and a positive ion |
| homolytic fission | each of the two atoms forming the bodn retains one of the shared electrons resulting in the formation of two free radicals |
| systematic error | if the instrument used has been calibrated wrongly or if the person using it consistently misreads it, the measurements will differ by the same amount |
| random uncertainty | occur if there is an equal probability of the reading being too high or too low from one measuremen to the next |
| precision | refers to how close several experimental measurements of the same quantity are to eachother |
| accuracy | refers to how close the reading is to the true value |
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