THE ULTIMATE STUDY FOR MORZENTI CHAPTER 17 PART II
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IBrain on January 5, 2011
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This is the ULTIMATE STUDY for Part II of II of Chapter 17. This includes Section III and IV.
SECTION III: DONE!
SECTION IV: DONE!
Classes:
2014 IB Quizlet Sharing PHUHS, PHUHS IB class of '13
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73 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Roman Catholic Church | By the tenth century, the Roman Catholic Church had come to dominate religious life in Northern and Western Europe. However, thee Church had not won universal approval. Over the centuries, many people criticized its practices. They felt that Church leaders were too interested in worldly pursuits, such as gaining wealth and political power. Even though the Church made some reforms during the Middle Ages, people continued to criticize it. Prompted by the actions of one man, that criticism would lead into rebellion. The Pope is the head of the Church. Salvation is by faith and good works. Church and Bible tradition are sources of revealed truth. Worship service based on ritual and priests interpret the Bible and Church teachings for believers. |
| Reformation | By 1500, additional forces weakened the Church. The Renaissance emphasis on the secular and the individual challenged Church authority. The printing press spread these secular ideas. In addition, some rulers began to challenge the Church's political power. In Germany, which was divided into many competing states, it was difficult for the pope or emperor to impose central authority. Finally, northern merchants resented paying Church taxes to Rome. Spurred by these social, political, and economic forces, a new movement for religious reform began in Germany. It then swept much of Europe. Someone copied Luther's words and took them to a printer. Quickly, Luther's name became known all over Germany. His actions began the Reformation, a movement for religious reform. It led to the founding of Christian churches that did not accept the pope's authority. The Reformation had an enduring impact. Through its religious, social, and political effects, the reformation set the stage for the modern world. It also ended the Christian unity of Europe and left it culturally divided. Despite religious wars and persecutions, Protestant churches flourished and new denominations developed. The Roman Catholic Church itself became more unified as a result of the reforms started at the Council of Trent. Both Catholics and Protestants gave more emphasis to the role of education in promoting their beliefs. This led to the founding of parish schools and new colleges and universities throughout Europe. Some women reformers had hoped to see the status of women in the church and society improve as a result of the Reformation. But it remained much the same both under Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. Women were still mainly limited to the concerns of home and family. As the Catholic Church's moral and political authority declined, individual monarchs and states gained power. This led to the development of modern nation-states. In the 1600s, rulers of nation-states would seek more power for themselves and their countries through wardare, exploration, and expansion. The Reformation's questioning of beliefs and authority also laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment. This intellectual movement would sweep Europe in the late 18th century. It led some to reject all religions and others to call for the overthrow of existing governments. |
| Pope Alexander VI | Critics of the Church claimed that its leaders were corrupt. The popes who ruled during the Renaissance patronized the arts, spent extravagantly on personal pleasure, and fought wars. Pope Alexander VI, an example of such, admitted that he had fathered several children. Many popes were too busy pursuing worldly affairs to have much time for spiritual duties. |
| Lower Clergy | The lower clergy had problems as well. Many priests and monks were so poorly educated that they could scarcely read, let alone teach people. Others broke their priestly vows by marrying, and some drank to excess or gambled. |
| Social Causes of Reformation | The Renaissance values of humanism and secularism led people to question the Church. The printing press helped to spread ideas critical of the Church. |
| Political Causes of Reformation | Powerful monarchs challenged the Church as the supreme power in Europe. Many leaders viewed the pope as a foreign ruler and challenged his authority. |
| Economic Causes of Reformation | European princes and kings were jealous of the Church's wealth. Merchants and others resented having to pay taxes to the Church. |
| Religious Causes of the Reformation | Some Church leaders had become worldly and corrupt. Many people found Church practices such as the sale of indulgences unacceptable. |
| John Wycliffe | Influenced by reformers, people had come to expect higher standards of conduct from priests and church leaders. In the late 1300s and early 1400s, John Wycliffe of ENGLAND and Jan Hus of Bohemia had advocated Church reform. They denied that the pope had the right to worldly power. They also taught that the Bible had more authority than Church leaders did. |
| Jan Hus | Influenced by reformers, people had come to expect higher standards of conduct from priests and church leaders. In the late 1300s and early 1400s, John Wycliffe of England and Jan Hus of BOHEMIA had advocated Church reform. They denied that the pope had the right to worldly power. They also taught that the Bible had more authority than Church leaders did. |
| Desiderius Erasmus | In the 1500s, Christian humanists like Desiderius Erasmus and Thomas More added their voices of criticism. In addition, many Europeans were reading religious works and forming their own opinions about the Church. The atmosphere in Europe was ripe for reform by the early 1500s. |
| Thomas More | In the 1500s, Christian humanists like Desiderius Erasmus and Thomas More added their voices of criticism. In addition, many Europeans were reading religious works and forming their own opinions about the Church. The atmosphere in Europe was ripe for reform by the early 1500s. In 1534, Henry's break with the pope was completed when Parliament voted to approve the Act of Supremacy. This called on people to take an oath recognizing the divorce and accepting Henry, not the pope, as the official head of England's Church. The Act of Supremacy met some opposition. Thomas More, even though he had strongly criticized the Church, remained a devout Catholic. His faith, he said, would not allow hiim to accept the terms of the act and he refused to take the oath. In response, Henry had him arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London. In 1535, More was founded guilty of high treason and executed. |
| Martin Luther | (1483-1546) In one way, fear led Luther to become a monk. At the age of 21, Luther was caught in a terrible thunderstorm. Convinced he would die, he cried out, "Saint Anne, help me! I will become a monk." Even after entering the monastery, Luther felt fearful, lost, sinful, and rejected by God. He confessed his sins regularly, fasted and did penance. However, by studying the Bible, Luther came to the conclusion that faith alone was the key to salvation. Only then did he experience peace. Martin Luther's parents wanted his to be a lawyer. Instead, he became a monk and a teacher. From 1512 until his death, he taught scripture at the University of Wittenberg in the German state of Saxony. All he wanted to be was a good Christian, not to lead a religious revolution. In 1517, Luther decided to take a public stand against the actions of a friar named Johann Tetzel. Tetzel was raising money to rebuild St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. He did this by selling indulgences. An indulgence was a pardon. It released a sinner from performing the penalty that a priest imposed for sins. Indulgences were not supposed to affect God's right to judge. Unfortunately, Tetzel gave people the impression that by buying indulgences, they could buy their way into heaven. Luther was troubled by Tetzel's tactics. In response, he wrote 95 Theses, or formal statements, attacking the "pardon-merchants." On October 31, 1517, he posted these statements on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg and invited other scholars to debate him. Someone copied Luther's words and took them to a printer. Quickly, Luther's name became known all over Germany. His actions began the Reformation, a movement for religious reform. It led to the founding of Christian churches that did not accept the pope's authority. Soon Luther went beyond criticizing indulgences. He wanted full reform of the Church. His teachings rested on three main ideas: -People could win salvation only by faith in God's forgiveness. The Church taught that faith and "good works" were needed for salvation. -All Church teachings should be clearly based on the words of the Bible. Both the pope and Church traditions were false authorities. -All people with faith were equal. Therefore, people did not need priests to interpret the Bible for them. Luther was astonished at how rapidly his ideas spread and attracted followers. many people had been unhappy with the Church for political and economical reasons. They saw Luther's protests as a way to challenge Church control. Initially, Church officials in Rome viewed Luther simply as a rebellious monk who needed to be punished by his superiors. However, as Luther's ideas became more popular, the pope realized that this monk was a serious threat. In one angry reply to Church criticism, Luther actually suggested that Christians drive the pope from the Church by force. In 1520, Pope Leo X issued a decree threatening Luther with excommunication unless he took back his statements. Luther did not take back a word. Instead, his students at Wittenberg gathered around a bonfire and cheered as he threw the pope's decree into the flames. Leo excommunicated Luther. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic, also opposed Luther's teaching. Charles controlled a vast empire, including the German states. He summoned Luther to the town of Worms (vawrmz) in 1521 to stand trial. Told to recant or take back his statements, Luther refused. A month after Luther made that speech, Charles issued an imperial order, the Edict of Worms. It declared Luther an outlaw and a heretic. According to this edict, no one in the empire was to give Luther food or shelter. All his books were to be burned. However, Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony disobeyed the emperor. For almost a year after the trial, he sheltered Luther in one of his castles. While there, Luther translated the new testament into German. Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522. There he discovered that many of his ideas were already being put into practice. Instead of continuing to seek reforms in the Catholic Church, Luther and his followers had become a separate religious group, called Lutherans. Some people began Luther's revolutionary ideas to society. In 1524, German peasants, excited by reformers' talk of Christian freedom, demanded an end to serfdom. Bands of angry peasants went about the countryside raiding monasteries, pillaging, and burning. The revolt horrified Luther. He wrote a pamphlet urging the German princes to show the peasants no mercy. The princes' armies crushed the revolt, killing as many as 100,000 people. Feeling betrayed, many peasants rejected Luther's religious leadership. In contrast to the bitter peasants, many northern German princes supported Lutheranism. While some princes genuinely shared Luther's beliefs, others liked Luther's ideas for selfish reasons. They saw his teachings as a good excuse to seize Church property and to assert their independence from Charles V. In 1529, German princes who remained loyal to the pope agreed to join forces against Luther's ideas. Those princes who supported Luther signed a protest against that agreement. These protesting princes came to be known as Protestants. Eventually, the term Protestant was applied to Christians who belonged to non-Catholic churches. As Protestant religions became more firmly established, their organization became more formal. Male religious leaders narrowly limited women's activities to the home and discouraged them from being lleaders in the church. In fact, It was Luther who said, "God's highest gift on earth is a pious, cheerful, God-fearing, home-keeping wife." Martin Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church grew sharper over time. Some Catholics, in turn, responded with personal attacks on Luther. In recent times, historians have focused less on the theological and personal issues connected with the Reformation. Instead, many modern scholars analyze the political, social, and economic conditions that contributed to the Reformation. In 1520, Martin Luther attacked the whole system of Church government and sent the pope a criticism of the Church leaders who served under him in Rome. |
| University of Wittenberg | Martin Luther's parents wanted his to be a lawyer. Instead, he became a monk and a teacher. From 1512 until his death, he taught scripture at the University of Wittenberg in the German state of Saxony. All he wanted to be was a good Christian, not to lead a religious revolution. |
| Saxony | Martin Luther's parents wanted his to be a lawyer. Instead, he became a monk and a teacher. From 1512 until his death, he taught scripture at the University of Wittenberg in the German state of Saxony. All he wanted to be was a good Christian, not to lead a religious revolution. |
| Johann Tetzel | In 1517, Luther decided to take a public stand against the actions of a friar named Johann Tetzel. Tetzel was raising money to rebuild St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. He did this by selling indulgences. An indulgence was a pardon. It released a sinner from performing the penalty that a priest imposed for sins. Indulgences were not supposed to affect God's right to judge. Unfortunately, Tetzel gave people the impression that by buying indulgences, they could buy their way into heaven. Luther was troubled by Tetzel's tactics. In response, he wrote 95 Theses, or formal statements, attacking the "pardon-merchants." On October 31, 1517, he posted these statements on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg and invited other scholars to debate him. Someone copied Luther's words and took them to a printer. Quickly, Luther's name became known all over Germany. His actions began the Reformation, a movement for religious reform. It led to the founding of Christian churches that did not accept the pope's authority. |
| Indulgences | Tetzel was raising money to rebuild St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. He did this by selling indulgences. An indulgence was a pardon. It released a sinner from performing the penalty that a priest imposed for sins. Indulgences were not supposed to affect God's right to judge. Unfortunately, Tetzel gave people the impression that by buying indulgences, they could buy their way into heaven. |
| Pope Leo X | In one angry reply to Church criticism, Luther actually suggested that Christians drive the pope from the Church by force. In 1520, Pope Leo X issued a decree threatening Luther with excommunication unless he took back his statements. Luther did not take back a word. Instead, his students at Wittenberg gathered around a bonfire and cheered as he threw the pope's decree into the flames. Leo excommunicated Luther. |
| Charles V | Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic, also opposed Luther's teaching. Charles controlled a vast empire, including the German states. He summoned Luther to the town of Worms (vawrmz) in 1521 to stand trial. Told to recant or take back his statements, Luther refused. A month after Luther made that speech, Charles issued an imperial order, the Edict of Worms. It declared Luther an outlaw and a heretic. According to this edict, no one in the empire was to give Luther food or shelter. All his books were to be burned. However, Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony disobeyed the emperor. For almost a year after the trial, he sheltered Luther in one of his castles. While there, Luther translated the new testament into German. Still determined that his subjects should remain Catholic, Charles V went to war against the Protestant princes. Even though he defeated them in 1547, he failed to force them back into the Catholic Church. In 1555, Charles, weary of fighting, ordered all German princes, both Protestant and Catholic, to assemble in the city of Augsburg. There the princes agreed that each ruler would decide the religion of his state. The famous religious settlement was known as the Peace of Augsburg. |
| Worms | Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic, also opposed Luther's teaching. Charles controlled a vast empire, including the German states. He summoned Luther to the town of Worms (vawrmz) in 1521 to stand trial. Told to recant or take back his statements, Luther refused. A month after Luther made that speech, Charles issued an imperial order, the Edict of Worms. |
| The Edict of Worms | Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic, also opposed Luther's teaching. Charles controlled a vast empire, including the German states. He summoned Luther to the town of Worms (vawrmz) in 1521 to stand trial. Told to recant or take back his statements, Luther refused. A month after Luther made that speech, Charles issued an imperial order, the Edict of Worms. It declared Luther an outlaw and a heretic. According to this edict, no one in the empire was to give Luther food or shelter. All his books were to be burned. However, Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony disobeyed the emperor. For almost a year after the trial, he sheltered Luther in one of his castles. While there, Luther translated the new testament into German. |
| Prince Frederick | Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, a devout Catholic, also opposed Luther's teaching. Charles controlled a vast empire, including the German states. He summoned Luther to the town of Worms (vawrmz) in 1521 to stand trial. Told to recant or take back his statements, Luther refused. A month after Luther made that speech, Charles issued an imperial order, the Edict of Worms. It declared Luther an outlaw and a heretic. According to this edict, no one in the empire was to give Luther food or shelter. All his books were to be burned. However, Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony disobeyed the emperor. For almost a year after the trial, he sheltered Luther in one of his castles. While there, Luther translated the new testament into German. |
| Lutherans | Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522. There he discovered that many of his ideas were already being put into practice. Instead of continuing to seek reforms in the Catholic Church, Luther and his followers had become a separate religious group, called Lutherans. In contrast to the bitter peasants, many northern German princes supported Lutheranism. While some princes genuinely shared Luther's beliefs, others liked Luther's ideas for selfish reasons. They saw his teachings as a good excuse to seize Church property and to assert their independence from Charles V. Ministers lead the congregations and salvation is by faith alone. Bible is the sole source of revealed truth and worship service focused on preaching and ritual. Believers interpret the Bible for themselves. |
| Peasants | Some people began Luther's revolutionary ideas to society. In 1524, German peasants, excited by reformers' talk of Christian freedom, demanded an end to serfdom. Bands of angry peasants went about the countryside raiding monasteries, pillaging, and burning. The revolt horrified Luther. He wrote a pamphlet urging the German princes to show the peasants no mercy. The princes' armies crushed the revolt, killing as many as 100,000 people. Feeling betrayed, many peasants rejected Luther's religious leadership. |
| Protestant | In contrast to the bitter peasants, many northern German princes supported Lutheranism. While some princes genuinely shared Luther's beliefs, others liked Luther's ideas for selfish reasons. They saw his teachings as a good excuse to seize Church property and to assert their independence from Charles V. In 1529, German princes who remained loyal to the pope agreed to join forces against Luther's ideas. Those princes who supported Luther signed a protest against that agreement. These protesting princes came to be known as Protestants. Eventually, the term Protestant was applied to Christians who belonged to non-Catholic churches. Still determined that his subjects should remain Catholic, Charles V went to war against the Protestant princes. Even though he defeated them in 1547, he failed to force them back into the Catholic Church. In 1555, Charles, weary of fighting, ordered all German princes, both Protestant and Catholic, to assemble in the city of Augsburg. There the princes agreed that each ruler would decide the religion of his state. The famous religious settlement was known as the Peace of Augsburg. Protestantism is a branch of Christianity. It developed out of the Reformation, the 16th-century protest in Europe against beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Three distinct branches of Protestantism emerged at first. They were Lutheranism, based on the teachings of Martin Luther in Germany; Calvinism, based on the teachings of John Calvin in Switzerland; and Anglicanism, which was established by King Henry VIII in England. Protestantism spread throughout Europe in the 16th century, and later, the world. As differences in beliefs developed, new denominations formed. Today, nearly 400 million worldwide and 65 million in US. More than 465 major denominations worldwide and 250 in US including Anglican, Assemblies of God, Baptist, Methodist, Lutheran, Presbyterian. About 40 denominations with more than 400000 each in US. Protestants taught that thee Bible is the source of all religious truth and that people should read it to discover those truths. As Christians interpreted the Bible for themselves, new Protestant groups formed over differences in belief. As Protestant religions became more firmly established, their organization became more formal. Male religious leaders narrowly limited women's activities to the home and discouraged them from being lleaders in the church. In fact, It was Luther who said, "God's highest gift on earth is a pious, cheerful, God-fearing, home-keeping wife." |
| Calvinism | Council of the elders govern each church. God has predetermined who will be saved and Bible is the sole source of revealed truth. Worship service focused on preaching and believers interpret the Bible for themselves. Calvin wrote that men and women are sinful by nature. Taking Luther's ideas that humans cannot earn salvation, Calvin went to say that God chooses a very few people to save. Calvin called these few the "elect." He believed that God has known since the beggining of time who will be saved. The religion based on Calvin's teachings is called Calvinism. |
| Anglicanism | English monarch is head of the Church. Salvation by faith alone and the Bible is the sole source of revealed truth. Worship service based on ritual and preaching and believers interpret the Bible using tradition and reason. In 1559, Parliament followed Elizabeth's wishes and set up the Church of England, or Anglican Church, with Elizabeth at its head. This was to be the only legal church in England. Elizabeth decided to establish a state church that moderate Catholics and moderate Protestants might both accept. To please Protestants, priests in the Church of England were allowed to marry. To please Catholics, the Church of England kept some of the trappings of the Catholic service such as rich robes. In addition, church services were revised to be somewhat more acceptable to Catholics. |
| Augsburg | Still determined that his subjects should remain Catholic, Charles V went to war against the Protestant princes. Even though he defeated them in 1547, he failed to force them back into the Catholic Church. In 1555, Charles, weary of fighting, ordered all German princes, both Protestant and Catholic, to assemble in the city of Augsburg. There the princes agreed that each ruler would decide the religion of his state. The famous religious settlement was known as the Peace of Augsburg. |
| Peace of Augsburg | Still determined that his subjects should remain Catholic, Charles V went to war against the Protestant princes. Even though he defeated them in 1547, he failed to force them back into the Catholic Church. In 1555, Charles, weary of fighting, ordered all German princes, both Protestant and Catholic, to assemble in the city of Augsburg. There the princes agreed that each ruler would decide the religion of his state. The famous religious settlement was known as the Peace of Augsburg. |
| Henry VIII | The Catholic Church soon faced another great challenge to its authority, this time in England. Unlike Luther, the man who broke England's ties to the Roman Catholic Church did so for political and personal, not religious, reasons. When Henry VIII became king of England in 1509, he was a devout Catholic. Indeed, in 1521, Henry wrote a stinging attack on Luther's ideas. In recognition of Henry's support, the pope gave him the title "Defender of the Faith." Political needs, however, soon tested his religious loyalty. He needed a male heir. Henry's father had become king after a long civil war. Henry feared that a similar civil war would start if he died without a son as his heir. He and his wife, Catherine of Aragon, had one living child - a daughter, Mary - but no woman had ever successfully claimed the English throne. By 1527, Henry was convinced that the 42-year-old Catherine would have no more children. He wanted to divorce her and take a younger queen. Church law did not allow divorce. However, the pope could annul, or set aside, Henry's marraige if proof could be found that it had never been legal in the first place. In 1527, Henry asked the pope to annul his marriage, but the pope turned him down. The pope did not want to offend Catherine's powerful nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. Henry took steps to solve his marriage problem himself. In 1529, he called Parliament into session and asked it to pass a set of laws that ended the pope's power in England. This Parliament is known as the Reformation Parliament. In 1533, Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn, who was in her twenties. Shortly after, Parliament legalized Henry's divorce from Catherine. In 1534, Henry's break with the pope was completed when Parliament voted to approve the Act of Supremacy. This called on people to take an oath recognizing the divorce and accepting Henry, not the pope, as the official head of England's Church. The Act of Supremacy met some opposition. Thomas More, even though he had strongly criticized the Church, remained a devout Catholic. His faith, he said, would not allow hiim to accept the terms of the act and he refused to take the oath. In response, Henry had him arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London. In 1535, More was founded guilty of high treason and executed.Henry did not immedietly get the male heir he sought. After Anne Boleyn gave biirth to a daughter, Elizabeth, she fell out of Henry's favor. Eventually, she was charged with treason. Like Thomas More, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London. She was found guilty and beheaded in 1536. Almost at once, Henry took a third wife, Jane Seymour. In 1537, she gave him a son named Edward. Henry's happiness was tempered by his wife's death just two weeks later. Henry married three more times. None of these marriages, however, produced children. After Henry's death in 1547, each of his three children ruled England in turn. This created religious turmoil. Henry's son, Edward, became king when he was just nine years old. Too young to rule alone, Edward VI was guided by adult advisers. Between 1540 to 1542, Henry divorced Anne of Cleves, his fourth wife, and executed Catherine Howard, his fifth wife. Catherine Parr, his sixth wife outlived him. |
| Catherine of Aragon | Married King Henry VIII in 1509. By 1527, Henry was convinced that the 42-year-old Catherine would have no more children. He wanted to divorce her and take a younger queen. Church law did not allow divorce. However, the pope could annul, or set aside, Henry's marraige if proof could be found that it had never been legal in the first place. In 1527, Henry asked the pope to annul his marriage, but the pope turned him down. The pope did not want to offend Catherine's powerful nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. |
| Annul (Annulment) | By 1527, Henry was convinced that the 42-year-old Catherine would have no more children. He wanted to divorce her and take a younger queen. Church law did not allow divorce. However, the pope could annul, or set aside, Henry's marraige if proof could be found that it had never been legal in the first place. In 1527, Henry asked the pope to annul his marriage, but the pope turned him down. The pope did not want to offend Catherine's powerful nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. |
| Reformation Parliament | Henry took steps to solve his marriage problem himself. In 1529, he called Parliament into session and asked it to pass a set of laws that ended the pope's power in England. This Parliament is known as the Reformation Parliament. |
| Act of Supremacy | In 1534, Henry's break with the pope was completed when Parliament voted to approve the Act of Supremacy. This called on people to take an oath recognizing the divorce and accepting Henry, not the pope, as the official head of England's Church. The Act of Supremacy met some opposition. Thomas More, even though he had strongly criticized the Church, remained a devout Catholic. His faith, he said, would not allow hiim to accept the terms of the act and he refused to take the oath. In response, Henry had him arrested and imprisoned in the Tower of London. In 1535, More was founded guilty of high treason and executed. |
| Anne Boleyn | In 1533, Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn, who was in her twenties. Shortly after, Parliament legalized Henry's divorce from Catherine. In 1534, Henry's break with the pope was completed when Parliament voted to approve the Act of Supremacy. This called on people to take an oath recognizing the divorce and accepting Henry, not the pope, as the official head of England's Church. The Act of Supremacy met some opposition. Henry did not immedietly get the male heir he sought. After Anne Boleyn gave biirth to a daughter, Elizabeth, she fell out of Henry's favor. Eventually, she was charged with treason. Like Thomas More, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London. She was found guilty and beheaded in 1536. |
| Elizabeth | (1533-1603) Henry did not immedietly get the male heir he sought. After Anne Boleyn gave biirth to a daughter, Elizabeth, she fell out of Henry's favor. Eventually, Anne was charged with treason. Like Thomas More, Anne was imprisoned in the Tower of London. Anne was found guilty and beheaded in 1536. When Mary died in 1558, Elizabeth, Anne Boleyn's daughter, inherited the throne. Elizabeth I was determined to return her kingdom to Protestantism. In 1559, Parliament followed Elizabeth's wishes and set up the Church of England, or Anglican Church, with Elizabeth at its head. This was to be the only legal church in England. Elizabeth decided to establish a state church that moderate Catholics and moderate Protestants might both accept. To please Protestants, priests in the Church of England were allowed to marry. To please Catholics, the Church of England kept some of the trappings of the Catholic service such as rich robes. In addition, church services were revised to be somewhat more acceptable to Catholics. By taking this moderate approach, Elizabeth brought a level of religious peace to England. Religion, however, remained a problem. Some Protestants pushed for Elizabeth to make more far-reaching church reforms. At the same time, some Catholics tried to overthrow Elizabeth and replace her with her cousin, the Catholic Mary Queen of Scots. Elizabeth also faced threats from Philip II, the Catholic king of Spain. Elizabeth faced other difficulties. Money was one problem. In the late 1500s, the English began to think about building an American empire as a new source of income. While colonies strengthened England economically, they did not enrich the queen directly. Elizabeth's constant need for money would carry over into the next reign and lead to bitter conflict between the monarch and Parliament. In the meantime, the reformation gained ground in other European countries. Elizabeth I, like her father, had a robust nature and loved physical activity. She had a particular passion for dancing. Her fondness for exercise diminished little with age, and she showed amazing energy and strength well into her sixties. Elizabeth also resembled in character and temperament. She was stubborn, strong-willed, and arogant, and she expected to be obeyed without question. And Elizabeth had a fierce and unpredictable temper. To her subjects, Elizabeth was an object of both fear and love. She was their "most dread sovereign lady." |
| Jane Seymour | Almost at once, Henry took a third wife, Jane Seymour. In 1537, she gave him a son named Edward. Henry's happiness was tempered by his wife's death just two weeks later. |
| Edward | Almost at once, Henry took a third wife, Jane Seymour. In 1537, she gave him a son named Edward. Henry's happiness was tempered by his wife's death just two weeks later. After Henry's death in 1547, each of his three children ruled England in turn. This created religious turmoil. Henry's son, Edward, became king when he was just nine years old. Too young to rule alone, Edward VI was guided by adult advisers. These men were devout Protestants, and they introduced Protestant reforms to the English Church. Almost constantly in ill health, Edward reigned for just six years. |
| Mary | Mary was born in 1516. Mary, the daughter of Catherine of Aragon, took throne in 1553. She was a Catholic who returned the English Church to the rule of the pope. Her efforts met with considerable resistance, and she had many Protestants executed. She helped restore the Catholic Church. When Mary died in 1558, Elizabeth, Anne Boleyn's daughter, inherited the throne. |
| Church of England | In 1559, Parliament followed Elizabeth's wishes and set up the Church of England, or Anglican Church, with Elizabeth at its head. This was to be the only legal church in England. Elizabeth decided to establish a state church that moderate Catholics and moderate Protestants might both accept. To please Protestants, priests in the Church of England were allowed to marry. To please Catholics, the Church of England kept some of the trappings of the Catholic service such as rich robes. In addition, church services were revised to be somewhat more acceptable to Catholics. Under the leadership of Queen Elizabeth I, the Anglican Church, though Protestant, remained similar to the Catholic Church in many of its doctrines and ceremonies. Meanwhile, other forms of Protestantism were developing elsewhere in Europe. |
| Mary Queen of Scots | By taking this moderate approach, Elizabeth brought a level of religious peace to England. Religion, however, remained a problem. Some Protestants pushed for Elizabeth to make more far-reaching church reforms. At the same time, some Catholics tried to overthrow Elizabeth and replace her with her cousin, the Catholic Mary Queen of Scots. Elizabeth also faced threats from Philip II, the Catholic king of Spain. |
| Philip II | By taking this moderate approach, Elizabeth brought a level of religious peace to England. Religion, however, remained a problem. Some Protestants pushed for Elizabeth to make more far-reaching church reforms. At the same time, some Catholics tried to overthrow Elizabeth and replace her with her cousin, the Catholic Mary Queen of Scots. Elizabeth also faced threats from Philip II, the Catholic king of Spain. |
| John Calvin | (1509-1564) Meanwhile, other forms of Protestantism were developing elsewhere in Europe. Martin Luther had launched the Reformation in northern Germany, but reformers were at work in other countries. In Switzerland, another major branch of Protestantism emerged. Based mainly on the teachings of John Calvin, a French follower of Luther, it promoted unique ideas about the relationship between people and God. In 1531, a bitter war between Swiss Protestants and Catholics broke out. During the fighting, Zwingli met his death. Meanwhile, John Calvin, then a young law student in France with a growing interest in Church doctrine, was beginning to clarify his religious beliefs. When Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in 1517, John Calvin had been only eight years old. But Calvin grew up to have as much influence in the spread of Protestantism as Luther did. He would give order to the faith Luther had begun. In 1536, Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion. This book expressed ideas about God, salvation, and human nature. It was a summary of Protestant theology, or religious beliefs. Calvin wrote that men and women are sinful by nature. Taking Luther's ideas that humans cannot earn salvation, Calvin went to say that God chooses a very few people to save. Calvin called these few the "elect." He believed that God has known since the beggining of time who will be saved. The religion based on Calvin's teachings is called Calvinism. Calvin believed the ideal government was a theocracy, a government controlled by religious leaders. In 1541, Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland, asked Calvin to lead their city. When Calvin arrived there in the 1540s, Geneva was a self-governing city of about 20,000 people. He and his followers ran the city according to strict rules. Everyone attended religion class. No one wore bright clothing of played card games. Authorities would imprison, excommunicate, or banish those who broke such rules. Anyone who preached different doctrines might be burned at the stake. Yet, to many Protestants, Calvin's Geneva was a model city of highly moral citizens. Elsewhere, Swiss, Dutch, and French reformers adopted the Calvinist form of church organization. One reason Calvin is considered so influential is that many Protestant churches today trace their roots to Calvin. Over the years, however, many of them have softened Calvin's strict teachings. A quiet booy, Calvin grew up to study law and philosophy at the university of Paris. In the 1530s, he was influenced by French followers of Luther. When King Francis I ordered Protestants arrested, Calvin fled. Eventually, he moved to Geneva. because Calvin andd his followers rigidly regulated morality in Geneva, Calvinism is often described as strict and grim. But Calvin taught that people should enjoy God's gifts. He wrote that it should not be "forbidden to laugh, or to enjoy food, or add new possessions to old." |
| Huldrych Zwingli | Religious reform in Switzerland was begun by Huldrych Zwingli, a Catholic priest in Zurich. He was influenced both by the Christian humanism of Erasmus and by the reforms of Luther. In 1520, Zwingli openly attacked abuses in the Catholic Church. He called for a return to the more personal faith of early Christianity. He also wanted believers to have more control over the Church. Zwingli's reforms were adopted in Zurich and other cities. In 1531, a bitter war between Swiss Protestants and Catholics broke out. During the fighting, Zwingli met his death. Meanwhile, John Calvin, then a young law student in France with a growing interest in Church doctrine, was beginning to clarify his religious beliefs. |
| Institutes of the Christian Religion | In 1536, Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion. This book expressed ideas about God, salvation, and human nature. It was a summary of Protestant theology, or religious beliefs. Calvin wrote that men and women are sinful by nature. Taking Luther's ideas that humans cannot earn salvation, Calvin went to say that God chooses a very few people to save. Calvin called these few the "elect." He believed that God has known since the beggining of time who will be saved. The religion based on Calvin's teachings is called Calvinism. |
| Predestination | Calvin wrote that men and women are sinful by nature. Taking Luther's ideas that humans cannot earn salvation, Calvin went to say that God chooses a very few people to save. Calvin called these few the "elect." He believed that God has known since the beggining of time who will be saved. The religion based on Calvin's teachings is called Calvinism. |
| Theocracy | Calvin believed the ideal government was a theocracy, a government controlled by religious leaders. In 1541, Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland, asked Calvin to lead their city. When Calvin arrived there in the 1540s, Geneva was a self-governing city of about 20,000 people. He and his followers ran the city according to strict rules. Everyone attended religion class. No one wore bright clothing of played card games. Authorities would imprison, excommunicate, or banish those who broke such rules. Anyone who preached different doctrines might be burned at the stake. Yet, to many Protestants, Calvin's Geneva was a model city of highly moral citizens. |
| Geneva | Calvin believed the ideal government was a theocracy, a government controlled by religious leaders. In 1541, Protestants in Geneva, Switzerland, asked Calvin to lead their city. When Calvin arrived there in the 1540s, Geneva was a self-governing city of about 20,000 people. He and his followers ran the city according to strict rules. Everyone attended religion class. No one wore bright clothing of played card games. Authorities would imprison, excommunicate, or banish those who broke such rules. Anyone who preached different doctrines might be burned at the stake. Yet, to many Protestants, Calvin's Geneva was a model city of highly moral citizens. |
| John Knox | One admiring visitor to Geneva was John Knox. When he returned to Scotland in 1559, Knox put Calvin's ideas to work. Each community church was governed by a group of laymen called elders or presbyters. Followers of Knox became known as Presbytarians. In the 1560s, Protestant nobles led by Knox made Calvinism Scotland's official religion. They also adopted their Catholic ruler, Mary Queen of Scots, in favor of her infant son, James. Elsewhere, Swiss, Dutch, and French reformers adopted the Calvinist form of church organization. |
| Huguenots | In France, Calvin's followers were called Huguenots. Hatred between Catholics and Huguenots frequently led to violence. The most violence clash occurred in Paris on August 24, 1572 - the Catholic feast of St. Barthomelows Day. At dawn, Catholic mobs began hunting for Protestants and murduring them. The massacres spread to other cities and lasted six months. Scholars believe that as many as 12,000 Huguenots were killed. |
| Anabaptists | Protestants taught that thee Bible is the source of all religious truth and that people should read it to discover those truths. As Christians interpreted the Bible for themselves, new Protestant groups formed over differences in belief. One such group baptized only those persons who were old enough to decide to be Christians. They said that persons who had been baptized as children should be rebaptized as adults. These believers were called Anabaptists, from the Greek word meaning "baptize again." The Anabaptists also taught that church and state should be separate, and they refused to fight in wars. They shared their possessions. Viewing Anabaptists as radicals who threatened society, both Catholics and Protestants persecuted them. But the Anabaptists survived and became the forerunners of the Mennonites and the Amish. Their teaching influenced the later Quakers and Baptists, groups who split from the Anglican Church. |
| Marguerite of Navarre | Many women played prominent roles in the Reformation, especially during the early years. For example, the of King Francis I, Marguerite of Navarre, protected John Calvin from being executed by his beliefs while living in France. Other noblewomen also protected reformers. The wives of some reformers, too had influence. |
| Katherina Zell | Other noblewomen also protected reformers. The wives of some reformers, too had influence. Katherina Zell, married to Mathew Zell of Strasbourg, once scolded a minister for speaking harshly of another reformer. The minister responded by saying that she had "disturbed the peace." She answered this criticism sharply. |
| Katherina von Bora | Other noblewomen also protected reformers. The wives of some reformers, too had influence. Katherina von Bora played a more typical, behind-the-scenes role as Luther's wife. Katherina was sent to a convent at about age 10, and had become a nun. Inspired by Luther's teaching, she fled the convent. After marrying Luther, Katherina had six children. She also managed the family finances, fed all who visited their house, and supported her husband's work. She respected Luther's position but argued with him about woman's equal role in marriage. As Protestant religions became more firmly established, their organization became more formal. Male religious leaders narrowly limited women's activities to the home and discouraged them from being lleaders in the church. In fact, It was Luther who said, "God's highest gift on earth is a pious, cheerful, God-fearing, home-keeping wife." |
| Catholic Reformation | While Protestant churches won many followers, millions remained true to Catholicism. Helping Catholics remain loyal was a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself. This movement is now known as the Catholic Reformation. Historians oonce referred to it as the Counter Reformation. Important leaders in this movement were reformers, such as Ignatius of Loyola, who founded new religious orders, and two popes - Paul III and Paul IV -who took actions to reform and renew the Church from within. |
| Ignatius of Loyola | Helping Catholics remain loyal was a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself. This movement is now known as the Catholic Reformation. Historians oonce referred to it as the Counter Reformation. Important leaders in this movement were reformers, such as Ignatius of Loyola, who founded new religious orders, and two popes - Paul III and Paul IV -who took actions to reform and renew the Church from within. Ignatius grew up in his father's castle in Loyola, Spain. The great turning point in his life came in 1521 when he was injured in war. While recovering, he thought about his past sins and about the life of Jesus. His daily devotions, he believed, cleansed his soul. In 1522, Ignatius began writing a book called Spiritual Exercises that laid out a day-by-day plan of meditation, prayer, and study. In it, he compared spiritual and physical exercise. For the next 18 years, Ignatius gathered followers. In 1540, the pope created a religious order for his followers called the Society of Jesus. Members were called Jesuits. The Jesuits focused on three activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were well-trained in both classical studies and theology. The Jesuits' second mission was to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. So they sent out missionaries around the world. Their third goal was to stop the spread of Protestantism. The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the drift toward Protestantism in Poland and southern Germany. |
| Pope Paul III | Helping Catholics remain loyal was a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself. This movement is now known as the Catholic Reformation. Historians oonce referred to it as the Counter Reformation. Important leaders in this movement were reformers, such as Ignatius of Loyola, who founded new religious orders, and two popes - Paul III and Paul IV -who took actions to reform and renew the Church from within. Two popes took the lead in reforming the Catholic Church. Paul III, pope from 1534 to 1549, took four important steps. First, he directed a council of cardinals to investigate indulgence selling and other abuses in the Church. Second, he approved the Jesuit order. Third, he used the Inquisition to seek out heresy in papal territory. Fourth, and most important, he called a council of Church leaders to meet in Trent, in northern Italy. From 1545 to 1563, at the Council of Trent, Catholic bishops and cardinals agreed on several doctrines: The Church's interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian who substiituted his or her own interpretation was a heretic. Christians needed faith and good works for salvation. They were not saved by faith alone, as Luther argued. The Bible and Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for guiding Christian life. Indulgences were valid expressions of faith. But the false selling of indulgences was banned. |
| Pope Paul IV | Helping Catholics remain loyal was a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself. This movement is now known as the Catholic Reformation. Historians oonce referred to it as the Counter Reformation. Important leaders in this movement were reformers, such as Ignatius of Loyola, who founded new religious orders, and two popes - Paul III and Paul IV -who took actions to reform and renew the Church from within. The next pope, Paul IIV, vigorously carried out the council's decrees. In 1559, he had officials draw up a list of books considered dangerous to the Catholic faith. This list was known sa the Index of Forbidden Books. Catholic bishops throughout Europe were ordered to gather up the offensive books (including Protestant Bibles) and burn them in bonfires. In Venice alone, followers burned 10,000 books in one day. |
| Spiritual Exercises | The great turning point in Ignatius of Loyola's life came in 1521 when he was injured in war. While recovering, he thought about his past sins and about the life of Jesus. His daily devotions, he believed, cleansed his soul. In 1522, Ignatius began writing a book called Spiritual Exercises that laid out a day-by-day plan of meditation, prayer, and study. In it, he compared spiritual and physical exercise. For the next 18 years, Ignatius gathered followers. |
| Society of Jesus | For the next 18 years, Ignatius gathered followers. In 1540, the pope created a religious order for his followers called the Society of Jesus. Members were called Jesuits. The Jesuits focused on three activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were well-trained in both classical studies and theology. The Jesuits' second mission was to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. So they sent out missionaries around the world. Their third goal was to stop the spread of Protestantism. The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the drift toward Protestantism in Poland and southern Germany. |
| Jesuits | For the next 18 years, Ignatius gathered followers. In 1540, the pope created a religious order for his followers called the Society of Jesus. Members were called Jesuits. The Jesuits focused on three activities. First, they founded schools throughout Europe. Jesuit teachers were well-trained in both classical studies and theology. The Jesuits' second mission was to convert non-Christians to Catholicism. So they sent out missionaries around the world. Their third goal was to stop the spread of Protestantism. The zeal of the Jesuits overcame the drift toward Protestantism in Poland and southern Germany. |
| Council of Trent | From 1545 to 1563, at the Council of Trent, Catholic bishops and cardinals agreed on several doctrines: The Church's interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian who substiituted his or her own interpretation was a heretic. Christians needed faith and good works for salvation. They were not saved by faith alone, as Luther argued. The Bible and Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for guiding Christian life. Indulgences were valid expressions of faith. But the false selling of indulgences was banned. The next pope, Paul IIV, vigorously carried out the council's decrees. In 1559, he had officials draw up a list of books considered dangerous to the Catholic faith. This list was known sa the Index of Forbidden Books. Catholic bishops throughout Europe were ordered to gather up the offensive books (including Protestant Bibles) and burn them in bonfires. In Venice alone, followers burned 10,000 books in one day. The Roman Catholic Church itself became more unified as a result of the reforms started at the Council of Trent. |
| Index of Forbidden Books | The next pope, Paul IIV, vigorously carried out the council's decrees. In 1559, he had officials draw up a list of books considered dangerous to the Catholic faith. This list was known sa the Index of Forbidden Books. Catholic bishops throughout Europe were ordered to gather up the offensive books (including Protestant Bibles) and burn them in bonfires. In Venice alone, followers burned 10,000 books in one day. |
| Jesuit Missionaries | The work of Jesuit missionaries has had a lasting impact around the globe. By the time Ignatius died in 1556, about a thousand Jesuits had brought his missionary to Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Two of the most famous Jesuit missionaries of the 1500s were Francis Xavier, who worked in India and Japan, and Matteo Ricci, who worked in China. One such reason the Jesuits had such an impact is that they founded schools throughout the world. For example, the Jesuits today run about 45 high schools and 28 colleges and universities in the United States. Four of these are Georgetown University, Boston College, Marquette University, and Loyola University of Chicago. |
| Francis Xavier | The work of Jesuit missionaries has had a lasting impact around the globe. By the time Ignatius died in 1556, about a thousand Jesuits had brought his missionary to Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Two of the most famous Jesuit missionaries of the 1500s were Francis Xavier, who worked in India and Japan, and Matteo Ricci, who worked in China. One such reason the Jesuits had such an impact is that they founded schools throughout the world. For example, the Jesuits today run about 45 high schools and 28 colleges and universities in the United States. Four of these are Georgetown University, Boston College, Marquette University, and Loyola University of Chicago. |
| Matteo Ricci | The work of Jesuit missionaries has had a lasting impact around the globe. By the time Ignatius died in 1556, about a thousand Jesuits had brought his missionary to Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Two of the most famous Jesuit missionaries of the 1500s were Francis Xavier, who worked in India and Japan, and Matteo Ricci, who worked in China. One such reason the Jesuits had such an impact is that they founded schools throughout the world. For example, the Jesuits today run about 45 high schools and 28 colleges and universities in the United States. Four of these are Georgetown University, Boston College, Marquette University, and Loyola University of Chicago. |
| Enlightenment | The Reformation's questioning of beliefs and authority also laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment. This intellectual movement would sweep Europe in the late 18th century. It led some to reject all religions and others to call for the overthrow of existing governments. |
| Steven Ozment | Martin Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church grew sharper over time. Some Catholics, in turn, responded with personal attacks on Luther. In recent times, historians have focused less on the theological and personal issues connected with the Reformation. Instead, many modern scholars analyze the political, social, and economic conditions that contributed to the Reformation. In 1992, historian Steven Ozment published Protestants: The Birth of a Revolution. Here, he comments on some of the political aspects of the Reformation. |
| G.R. Elton | Martin Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church grew sharper over time. Some Catholics, in turn, responded with personal attacks on Luther. In recent times, historians have focused less on the theological and personal issues connected with the Reformation. Instead, many modern scholars analyze the political, social, and economic conditions that contributed to the Reformation. In Reformation Europe, published in 1963, historian G.R. Elton notes the role of geography and trade in the spread of Reformation ideas. |
| Hans Brosamer | Martin Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church grew sharper over time. Some Catholics, in turn, responded with personal attacks on Luther. In recent times, historians have focused less on the theological and personal issues connected with the Reformation. Instead, many modern scholars analyze the political, social, and economic conditions that contributed to the Reformation. "Seven-Headed Martin Luther" (1529) The invention of the printing press enabled both Protestants and Catholics to engage in a war of both words and images. The anti-Luther illustration by German painter Hans Brosamer depicted Martin Luther as a seven headed monster - doctor, monk, infidel, preacher, fanatic swarmed by beas, self apppointed pope, and theif Barabbas from the Bible. |
| Protestants: The Birth of a New Revolution | Martin Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church grew sharper over time. Some Catholics, in turn, responded with personal attacks on Luther. In recent times, historians have focused less on the theological and personal issues connected with the Reformation. Instead, many modern scholars analyze the political, social, and economic conditions that contributed to the Reformation. In 1992, historian Steven Ozment published Protestants: The Birth of a Revolution. Here, he comments on some of the political aspects of the Reformation. |
| Reformation Europe | Martin Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church grew sharper over time. Some Catholics, in turn, responded with personal attacks on Luther. In recent times, historians have focused less on the theological and personal issues connected with the Reformation. Instead, many modern scholars analyze the political, social, and economic conditions that contributed to the Reformation. In Reformation Europe, published in 1963, historian G.R. Elton notes the role of geography and trade in the spread of Reformation ideas. |
| Seven-Headed Martin Luther | Martin Luther's criticisms of the Catholic Church grew sharper over time. Some Catholics, in turn, responded with personal attacks on Luther. In recent times, historians have focused less on the theological and personal issues connected with the Reformation. Instead, many modern scholars analyze the political, social, and economic conditions that contributed to the Reformation. "Seven-Headed Martin Luther" (1529) The invention of the printing press enabled both Protestants and Catholics to engage in a war of both words and images. The anti-Luther illustration by German painter Hans Brosamer depicted Martin Luther as a seven headed monster - doctor, monk, infidel, preacher, fanatic swarmed by beas, self apppointed pope, and theif Barabbas from the Bible. |
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