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Blood Facts -temp of 100.4ºF (38ºC) -approx. 5 times more viscous than water -slightly alkaline w. pH between 7.35 and 7.45 -blood volume can be roughly estimated as 7% of total body weight in kilograms... 220 lb person = 100 kg (2.2 kg/lb) Approx. 7 liters of blood in a 100 kg person Blood Volume (male/female average) male: 5-6 liters female: 4 -5 liters functions of blood -Transportation -Regulation of pH and Ion Composition of Interstitial Fluid -Restriction of Fluid Losses at Injury Sites -Defense against Toxins and Pathogens -Stabilization of Body Temperature Separating Plasma From Formed Elements of Blood Hematocrit - centrifuge blood to separate components -Erythrocytes are heaviest and settle first, 37-52% total volume -White blood cells and platelets, 1% total volume, Buffy coat -Plasma, Remainder of volume, 47% - 63%, Complex mixture of water, proteins, nutrients, electrolytes, nitrogenous wastes, hormones, and gases Red Blood Cells -Most abundant blood cell (99.9%) -Contains hemoglobin protein which binds O2 and CO2 -Single drop of blood contains 280 million RBCs - 33% of cytoplasm -Shape is described as a biconcave disk - cytoskeletal proteins spectrin and actin present -No organelles - typical lifespan is 120 days -Hemoglobin accounts for 95% of all RBC intracellular proteins -Typical hemoglobin levels in males is 13-18 g/dl and females is 12-16 g/dl hemoglobin -Each molecule consists of 2 alpha & 2 beta chains, & a molecule of iron. -Oxyhemoglobin, HbO2, formed when iron binds with oxygen - reaction is reversible -Deoxyhemoglobin, Hb, is not bound to oxygen -A single red blood cell contains 280 million Hb molecules -98.5% of oxygen in blood is bound to hemoglobin -Carbaminohemoglobin is formed when heme chains bind CO2 Oxyhemoglobin, HbO2 formed when iron binds with oxygen - reaction is reversible Deoxyhemoglobin, Hb not bound to oxygen Carbaminohemoglobin formed when heme chains bind CO2 Each Hb molecule consists of -four protein chains - globins -four heme groups Heme groups nonprotein moiety that binds O2 to ferrous ion (Fe2+) at its center Globins four protein chains --two alpha and two beta chains --5% CO2 in blood is bound to globin moiety #1 killer in this country cardiovascular disease (cvd); 2400 persons die every day; 1 person every 37 seconds; direct cause for 1 in every 5 deaths estimated # of Americans that have at least one type of CVD over 80 million Americans; translates to 1 out of every 3 persons probability of dying from a CVD 47% probability of dying from cancer 22% probability of dying from an accident 3% probability of dying from diabetes 2% probability of dying from AIDS 0.7% Circulation Route 1. Right Atrium 2. AV Valve/Tricuspid 3. Right Ventricle 4. Pulmonary Semilunar Valve 5. Pulmonary trunk/arteries *deoxygenated blood* 6. Lungs *pick up O2/drop off CO2 and H+* 7. Pulmonary Veins *oxygenated blood* 8. Left Atrium 9. AV Valve/Bicuspid(mitral) 10. Left Ventricle 11. Aortic Semilunar Valve 12. Aorta 13. RCA and LCA deliver to Heart 14. Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, Venules, Veins 15. Vena Cavas - back to Right Atrium Right Atrium Circulation in heart starts here Blood Vessels that bring blood back to the heart 1. Superior Vena Cava 2. Inferior Vena Cava 3. Coronary Sinus Pulmonary Arteries -2 (1 each side); -carry deoxygenated blood Pulmonary Veins -4 (2 each side); -carry oxygenated blood -Blood to left Atrium (LA) First two branches off of the Aorta 1. LCA (Left Coronary Artery) 2. RCA (Right Coronary Artery) *These feed the heart; 'Blocked Artery' usually happens here Largest artery in body Aorta Capillaries *gas & nutrient exchange occurs here* pulmonary blood flow to lungs systemic circulation carried blood from the heart to tissues of the body and then returns it to the heart venous blood from the heart enters... the right atrium from the coronary sinus O2-poor blood is pumped from.. the right ventricle into the pulmonary trunk IVC collects blood from: -abdomen -pelvis -lower limbs Enters into Right Atrium SVC collects blood from: -head -neck -upper limbs -thorax Enters into Right Atrium 2 Arteries that feed the heart LCA and RCA Four chambers of the heart 2 thin-walled atria 2 thick-walled ventricles O2 blood enters... Right Atrium via SVC and IVC In the systemic capillaries... O2 is exchanged for CO2, resulting in O2-poor blood In the pulmonary capillaries... CO2 is exchanged for O2, resulting in O2-rich blood; this O2-rich blood then flows through the pulmonary veins, entering left atrium Right Atrium -Circulation in heart starts here -in its own chamber systemic blood flow out to body/body system; pulmonary circulation carries blood from the heart to the lungs for gas exchange and returns it to the heart pulmonary trunk -contains deoxygenated blood -divide to Right and Left Pulmonary Arteries vein blood vessel that takes blood TO the heart artery blood vessel that takes blood AWAY from the heart ventricles pump blood FROM the heart atria collect blood returning TO the heart lungs -pick up O2; -drop off CO2 + H+ -oxygenate blood AV - AtrioVentricular Average time it takes a blood cell to circulate in body 90 seconds to 3 minutes, depending on route primary reason for breathing to get rid of CO2 Layers of the heart - superficial to deep 1. Parietal Pericardium 2. Epicardium (visceral pericardium) 3. Myocardium 4. Endocardium mediastinum -divides thoracic cavity -the region between the lungs, extending from the base of the neck to the diaphragm; -occupied by the heart, the major blood vessels connected to it, the esophagus, trachea, bronchi, and thymus pericardial sac (aka fibrous pericardium) outermost layer of heart; adheres directly to central tendon/diaphragm parietal pericardium deep to pericardial sac heart wall - layers - superficial to deep 1. pericardial sac (fibrous pericardium) 2. parietal pericardium 3. pericardial cavity 4. visceral pericardium (epicardium) 5. myocardium 6. endocardium visceral pericardium (aka epicardium) -directly adheres to heart -deep to pericardial cavity pericardial cavity -deep to parietal pericardium -superficial to visceral pericardium -separates parietal pericardium & visceral pericardium myocardium -cardiac muscle tissue -thick muscular wall endocardium -made of areolar ct, endothelium -deepest layers of heart wall -continues into vessels as endothelium intercalated discs -join cardiocytes end to end; -where discs come together' -striated; --involuntary cardiocytes -striated, short, thick, branched walls -one central nucleus? surrounded by light staining mass of glycogen -involuntary 3 distinctive features of intercalated discs 1. Interdigitating folds 2. mechanical junctions 3. electrical junctions interdigitating folds folds interlock with each other; increase surface area of intercellular contact mechanical junctions tightly join cardiocytes; 2 types: 1. fascia adherens 2. desmosomes desmosomes type of mechanical junction -weldlike mechanical junctions between cells -"spot weld" -prevents cardiocytes from being pulled apart fascia adherens type of mechanical junction -"velcro that holds cells together" -broad band in which the actin of the thin myofilaments is anchored to the plasma membrane gap junctions an electrical junction -allows ions to flow between cells -can stimulate neighbors -"tubes that allow things to pass through" -entire myocardium of either two atria or two ventricles act like a single unified cell **(essential for effective pumping of a heart chamber)** synctium -cardiac muscle in cells work together as one unit -heart itself acts as one unit repair of cardiac muscle almost entirely done by fibrosis (scarring) fibrosis - fibrotic tissue/mainly collagen fibers (fibroblasts) descending aorta position shifted to left of vertebral column left lung - position and size smaller than right most mass of heart site in left right lung size larger than left esophagus position lies posterior to heart septum separates right atrium from left atrium, separates right ventricle from left ventricle -murmurs happens here when there is a hole murmur hole in the septum auricle no function in the human; earlike flaps of tissue projecting from atrial chambers ligamentum arteriosum connects pulmonary trunk to aortic arch -adult: non-functional -fetal: canal used to bypass lungs, when in utero, lungs aren't working, no need for blood to get to lungs 3 valves at top of aortic arch 1. Brachiocephalic Artery (deliver blood to head/arm) 2. left common carotid artery 3. left subclavian artery coronary sinus drains the heart tissue into right atrium brachiocephalic artery -on top of aortic arch -1st artery on left when in anterior exterior view -deliver blood to head/arm -going to right side **separates into r. common carotid artery & r. subclavian artery left common carotid artery -middle artery that protrudes from top of aortic arch **separates into L. external carotid artery and L. internal carotid artery left subclavian artery -right artery protruding from top of aortic arch when in anterior exterior view **separates into L. vertebral & L. axillary which side of the heart has higher pressure? LEFT. because it has to send blood through entire body pectinate muscle muscle found on the walls of the atria trabeculae carnae muscle found on the walls of the ventricles "widowmaker" blockage in LCA foramen ovale -allows blood to go from right side to left side -skips the lungs in fetal life -flaplike opening in the interatrial septum -closes shortly after birth and becomes the fossa ovalis in adult with no function fossa ovalis formerly foramen ovale in fetal life; closes shortly after borth and becomes this non-functional after birth prolapsed valve leakage of blood from valve going into atria; papillary muscles & chordae tendinae prevent this structures that prevent valve prolapse papillary muscles & chordae tendinae what role does chordae tendinae & papillary muscles have in opening chambers? NONE what effect does strep throat have on heart valves? can cause scarring where does coronary circulation begin? RCA coronary blood circulation - arterial -5% of blood pumped by heart is pumped to the heart itself through the coronary circulation to sustain its strenuous workload --250 ml of blood per minute --needs abundant O2 and nutrients ARTERIES: RCA, LCA left coronary artery (LCA) -branch off of ascending aorta -very short -posterior to the pulmonary trunk -blockage here is called the "widowmaker" Gives off two branches: 1. Anterior Intraventricular (aka Left Anterior Descending, LAD) 2. Circumflex Branch Anterior Interventricular (aka Left Anterior Descending Aorta, LAD) -Branches off of LCA -On the surface where you would find septum -runs with Great Cardiac Vein -Supplies blood to both ventricles and anterior 2/3 of the interventricular septum circumflex branch -branches from LCA -passes around left side of heart in coronary sulcus -gives off left marginal branch & then ends on posterior side of heart -supplies left atrium & posterior wall of left ventricle right coronary artery (RCA) -branch off the ascending aorta -feeds left side of heart -supplies right atrium and sinoatrial node (pacemaker) Gives off: 1. Right Marginal Branch 2. Posterior Interventricular Right Marginal Branch -branches from RCA -supplies lateral aspect of right atrium and ventricle Posterior Interventricular -branches from RCA -supplies posterior walls of ventricles myocardial infarction blood flow to heart has stopped **heart attack** two parts of cardiovascular system 1. systemic 2. pulmonary Coronary Blood circulation - Venous -5-10% drains directly into heart chambers, right atrium and right ventricle, by way of the Thebesian veins -The rest returns to RA by the following routes" --Great Cardiac Vein --Middle Cardiac Vein --Left Marginal Vein -Coronary Sinus middle cardiac vein -part of coronary blood circulation - venous -runs w. posterior interventricular artery -found in posterior sulcus -collects blood from posterior portion of heart -drains into coronary sinus, then back to RA great cardiac vein -part of coronary blood circulation - venous -runs w. LAD (aka anterior interventricular artery) -collects blood from anterior portion of heart -wraps around left side of heart -empties into coronary sinus, then to RA left marginal vein -part of coronary blood circulation - venous -empties into coronary sinus, then to RA coronary sinus -part of coronary blood circulation - venous -largest vein on heart -collects blood and empties into RA -large transverse vein in coronary sulcus on posterior side of heart fibrous skeleton -where heart valves attach -gives stability -acts as an insulator with AV node to prevent currents from getting to the ventricles from any other route metabolism of cardiac muscle -cardiac muscle depends almost exclusively on aerobic resp. to make ATP -Adaptable to organic fuels used -Fatique resistant since makes little use of anaerobic fermentation or oxygen debt mechanisms (Does not fatigue for a lifetime) cardiac muscle depends almost exclusively on... aerobic respiration to make ATP, -rich in myoglobin and glycogen -huge mitochondria - fill 25% of cell - where we make ATP myoglobin pigment gives muscle its color; what binds to O2 cardiac muscle: adaptable to organic fuels used -fatty acids (60%), glucose (35%), ketones, lactic acid and amino acids (5%) -more vulnerable to oxygen deficiency than lack of a specific fuel (run low on O2, may run low on heart activity/muscle) cardiac cells the heart's intrinsic ability to contract conducting system controls and coordinate heartbeat; --autorhythmicity (automaticity) --players include: SA node, AV node, AV Bundle of His, Bundle Branches, and Purkinje Fibers contractile system produces powerful contractions that propel blood autorhythmicity (automaticity) the ability of cardiac muscle to contract on its own cardiac conduction system (pathway) 1. SA node - "pacemaker", generates impulses 2. AV Node - "catches the signal", holds briefly 3. AV Bundle - connects atria to ventricles 4. Bundle Branches - conduct impulses through system 5. Purkinje Fibers cardiac conduction system (all nervous cells) -coordinates the heartbeat --composed of an internal pacemaker & nervelike conduction pathways through myocardium --generates and conducts rhythmic electrical signals Sinoatrial (SA) Node -modified cardiocytes -all electrical signals start here -initiates each heartbeat & determines heart rate -signals spread throughout atria (tells them to contract, will draw blood down to ventricle from atria) -pacemaker in RA near base of SVC Atrioventricular (AV) Node -"catches the signal" -holds signal for a brief second to make sure atria are emptying -located near right AV valve at lower end of septum -electrical gateway to ventricles -fibrous skeleton act as an insulator to prevent currents from getting to ventricles from any other route atrioventricular (AV) Bundle -bundles forks into right and left bundle branches -branches pass through interventricular septum toward apex purkinje fibers nervelike processes spread throughout ventricular myocardium arrhythmia any abnormal cardiac rhythm -failure of conduction system to transmit signals (heart block) -----bundle branch block -----total heart block (damage to AV node) ectopic focus other parts of heart fires before SA node ----hypoxia, electrolyte imbalance, or caffeine, nicotine, and other drugs sinus rhythm normal heartbeat triggered by the SA node (intrinsic ability in heart) --Set by SA node at 60-100 BPM --Adult at rest is 70 to 80 BPM (vagal tone) diastole atrial or ventricular relaxation --what the pressure is in arteries during ventricular relaxation cardiac rhythm cycle of events in heart -special names ---systole ---diastole normal BP is 120/80 to 110/70 mmHq normal BP 120/80 to 110/70 mmHq systole atrial or ventricular contraction --what the pressure is in arteries during ventricular contraction moderator band/septomarginal band little piece of tissue from papillary muscles to IV wall problems in this area of vertebrae may result in heart problems t1 - t4 SA node potentials -no outside influence, just does it -neural cells -threshold -40mV -"rmp" - 60mV "leaky" sodium cardiac arrhythmias -atrial flutter -premature ventricular contractions (PVCs) -ventricular fibrillation threshold of contractile cell -75mV resting potential of contractile cell -90mV (baseline) 3 steps of contractile cells 1. rapid depolarization - sodium entry 2. plateau - calcium entry ----hold contraction for a brief period then release, makes sure blood is moving through heart 3. rapid repolarization - potassium loss contractile cells -receive stimulus from purkinje fibers - 99% of all heart cells -these form the bulk of the atrial and ventricular walls -resting potential is -90mV -threshold is -75mV SA Node: membrane potential starts at _____mV -60mV faster depolarization of SA node starts at ______mV 0mV SA node: AP starts firing at ________ mV -40mV SA node: membrane potential -does not have a stable RMP -starts at -60mV, then drifts up from a slow influx of na+ -----gradual depolarization is called pacemaker potential: slow inflow of na+ w/o compensating outflow of k+ -when reaches threshold of -40mV, voltage-gated fast ca2+ and Na+ channels open -----faster depolarization occurs peaking at 0mV -----k+ channels then open and k+ leaves cell causing: ----------repolarization ----------once k+ channels close, pacemaker potential starts over SA node: firing rate at rest, fires every 0.8 seconds or 75 BPM -occurs at each depolarization, resulting in a fire, each heartbeat pacemaker physiology -sa node does not have stable RMP, "leaky" -each depolarization of the SA node sets off one heartbeat -sa node is the system's pacemaker defibrillation -strong electrical shock whose intent is to depolarize the entire myocardium, stop the fibrillation, and reset SA nodes to sinus rhythm -"tries to reset pace of AV/SA. etc. to get it going in right electrical pattern" ventricular fibrillation -serious arrhythmia caused by electrical signals reaching different regions at widely different times --heart can't blood and no coronary perfusion -kills quickly if not stopped **body isn't getting o2 it needs, break out defibrillator** premature ventricular contractions (pvc) a type of cardiac arrhythmia -caused by stimulants, stress, or lack of sleep mostly external factors atrial flutter a type of cardiac arrhythmia -ectopic foci (focus) in atria ----atrial fibrillation -----atria beat 200-400 times per minute, not fully contracting T-wave ventricular depolarization QRS Complex Ventricular Depolarization/Atrial Repolarization -much larger 'R' because more muscle in ventricles *don't see A.R. because V.D. is so massive in size P-wave atrial depolarization -cardiac cells fire in atria :beginning of P: SA node generates impulse; AD begins :during P: impulse delayed at AV node electrical activity of myocardium 1. A.D. begins (receive signal from SA node) 2. A.D. complete (atria contracted) 3. Ventricles begin to depolarize at apex; atria repolarize (atria relaxed) 4. V.D. complete (ventricles contracted) 5. Ventricles begin to repolarize at apex 6. V.R. complete (ventricles relaxed) during the electrical activity of myocardium, how does the ventricles know when to contract? Ventricles are filling, and when cells start to stretch because ventricles are full, that is the signal that says "full"; then ventricles will contract how does A.D. know when to begin? receive signal from SA node ECG's Abnormal findings -abnormalities in conduction pathway -myocardial infarctin -heart enlargement (have higher/bigger QRS) -electrolyte & hormone imbalances ECG - no P Wave no atrial depolarization, atria are not receiving the signal to contract; no SA node activity - Nodal Rhythm ECG: heart enlargement would have higher/bigger QRS passive filling accounts for most of ventricular filling isovolumetric relaxation all valves closed / all pressures are equal major events of cardiac cycle -ventricular filling -----a. rapid filling -----b. diastasis -----c. atrial systole -isovolumetric contractions -ventricular ejection -isovolumetric relaxation ventricular systole contraction of the ventricles (when ventricles are filled w. blood) ----begins as atrial systole ends Phase 1: isovolumetric contractions Phase 2: ventricular ejection isovolumetric contractions iso = same Phase #1 of ventricular systole -occurs w. contraction of ventricles (ventricular systole) without ejection ------ ventricles filling w. blood * start to stretch, a signal to tighten up cardiac cells to a point where it has the best ability to eject the blood ventricular ejection Phase #2 of ventricular systole --occurs when the pressure in the ventricles exceeds that in the pulmonary/aortic trunks -------- completely contract & send blood to pulmonary and aorta trunks ventricular diastole relaxation of the ventricles atrial diastole relaxation of the atria atrial systole contraction of the atria --pushes blood into ventricles to the maximum amount called the End-Diastolic Volume (EDV) = 130 ml ------ Note: with each pump of heart, approx. 130ml of blood move from chamber to chamber cardiac cycle: pressure changes the chamber that has the blood must have more pressure than the one in front of it cardiac output volume of blood ejected from the left/right ventricle into the aorta/pulmonary trunk --equal the stroke volume (SV) multiplied by the heart rate (HR) ejection fraction percentage of the EDV represented by the SV -what $ was ejected? -Ex. 100 ml, 90% ejected = 10% stroke volume (SV) "the difference" SV = EDV (full) - ESV (empty) -amount of blood pumped out of each ventricle during a single beat end-diastolic volume (EDV) "full" -amount of blood in each ventricle at the end of ventricular diastole (relaxation) end-systolic volume (ESV) "empty" -amount of blood remaining in each ventricle at the end of ventricular systole (contraction) cardiac output formula CO(ml/min) = SV(ml/beat) x HR(beats/min) 3 layers of vein/artery superficial to deep: 1. lumen interna/intima 2. tunica media 3. tunica externa where is most of the blood found in the body? about 60% of blood in the venous system at any given time layers of capillaries & their function tunica interna (endothelium, basement membrane) -one cell layer thick -because of this exceptional thinness, exchanges are easily made between the blood and tissue cells arteries vs. pressure higher pressure than veins -because they are subjected to pressure fluctuations veins vs. pressure essentially no to low-pressure vessels -because they are not subjected to pressure fluctuations tunica media -middle layer, more bulky middle coat -between tunica interna and tunica externa -smooth muscle & elastin -under control of sympathetic N.S. -THICKER in arteries -plays active role in regulating the diameter of blood vessels, in turn blood pressure tunica interna -endothelium and basement membrane -innermost layer of veins/artery -lines the lumen of a vessel -single thin layer of endotheloim that is continuous w. endocardium of heart tunica externa (adventitia) -outermost layer/tunic -composed of areolar or fibrous C.T. -function is basically supportive & protective -"GLUE" capillary layers tunica intima/interna (endothelium and basement membrane) end-systolic volume (ESV) "EMPTY" amount of blood remaining in each ventricle at the end of ventricular systole (contraction) end-diastolic volume (EDV) "FULL" amount of blood remaining in each ventricle at the end of ventricular diastole (relaxation) stroke volume (SV) "the difference" SV = EDV (full) - ESV (empty) -amount of blood pumped out of each ventricle during a single beat ejection fraction percentage of the EDV represented by the SV -What % was ejected? Ex. 100 ml, 90% emptied = 10% cardiac output -volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle (or right) into the airota (or pulmonary trunk) -EQUAL the SV (stroke volume) MULTIPLED by the HR (heart rate) CO = SV x HR cardiac cycle: pressure changes the chamber that has the blood must have more pressure than the one in front of it atrial systole contraction of the atria -pushes blood into the ventricle to the maximum amount called the End-Diastolic Volume (EDV) = 130ml NOTE: with each pump of heart, approx. 130 ml of blood move from chamber to chamber atrial diastole relaxation of the atria ventricular diastole relaxation of the ventricle venticular ejection Phase #2: Ventricular Systole -occurs when the pressure in the ventricle exceeds that in the pulmonary trunk/aorta ------ completely contract and send blood to pulmonary trunk/aorta isovolumetric contraction PHASE #1: Ventricular Systole -occurs w. contraction of ventricles without ejection. ----------- ventricles filling w. blood & start to stretch, a signal to tighten up cardiac cells to a point where it has the best ability to eject the blood ventricular systole contraction of the ventricles (when ventricles are filled w. blood) -begins as atrial systole ends Phase #1: Isovolumetric contraction Phase #2: Ventricular ejection major events of cardiac cycle -ventricular filling --a. rapid filling --b. diastasis --c. atrial systole -isovolumentric contraction -ventricular ejection -isovolumetric relaxation isovolumetric relaxation all valves closed/all pressures are equal passive filling accounts for most of ventricular filling ECG: heart enlargement would have higher/bigger QRS ECG: no P Wave no atrial depolarization; atria aren't receiving the signal to contract (no SA node activity - Nodal Rhythm) P Wave atrial depolarization -cardiac cells fire in Atria --beginning of P: SA node generates impulse, AD beings --during P: impulse delayed at AV node briefly QRS complex ventricular depolarization/atrial repolarization -much larger R because more muscles in ventricles *don't see A.R. because V.D. is so massive in size T Wave ventricular depolarization ECG's Abnormal Findings -abnormalities in conduction pathways -myocardial infarction -heart enlargement (would have higher/bigger QRS) -electrolyte & hormone imbalances how does AD know when to begin? receive signal from SA node during electrical activity of myocardium, how does the ventricles know when to contract? ventricles are filling; and when cells start to stretch to because ventricles are full, that is the signal that says "FULL", then ventricles will contract electrical activity of myocardium 1. atrial depolarization begins (receive signal from SA node) 2. atrial depolarization ends (atria contracted) 3. ventricles begin to depolarize at apex; atria repolarize (atria relaxed) 4. Ventricular depolarization complete (ventricles contracted) 5. ventricles begin to repolarize at apex 6. ventricular repolarization complete (ventricles relaxed) cardiac output formula CO (cardiac output)ml/min = SV (stroke volume)ml/beat x HR (heart rate)beats/min Ex. HR is 75 bom, SV is 80ml/beat, what is the CO? CO = 80 x 75 CO = 6000 ml/min or 6L/min hydrostatic pressure normal BP physical force exerted against a surface by a liquid colloid osmotic pressure (COP) -draws fluid into capillary -"solid particles" -blood has to stay at certain concentration -results from plasma proteins (albumin) - more in blood ----oncotic pressure = net COP (blood COP - tissue COP) blood hydrostatic pressure -drives fluid out of capillary -high on arterial end -low on venous end capillary movement -fluid filters out of the arterial end of the capillary and osmotically reenters at the venous end ---blood hydrostatic pressure ---colloid osmotic pressure (COP) ---hydrostatic pressure -capillary reabsorb about 85% of fluid they filter -other 15% absorbed by lymphatic system & returned to blood blood facts temp is 100.4F (38C) -approx. 5x more viscous than water -ph 7.35-7.45 (slightly alkaline) -blood volume can be roughly estimated as 7% of total body weight in kg functions of blood -transportation -regulation of pH and ion composition of interstital fluid -restriction of fluid losses at injury sites -defense against toxins and pathogens -stabilization of body temp blood volume (on average) Male:____ Female:____ Male: 5-6 liters Female: 4-5 liters total blood vessel lenght longer vessels = more resistance (higher pressure) blood viscosity -thickness, how fast things flow -plasma (water) and cells *solids increase, water decrease more water = decreased viscosity dehydrated (less water) = increased viscosity Ex. water vs. oil, oil is more viscous resistance and regulation of blood flow -size of lumen -blood viscosity -total blood vessel length cross sectional area vs. velocity velocity is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area; opposites: inversely proportional blood flow = volume (ml)/time = min most systemic cross-sectional area (total surface area) most = capillaries adding up all the capillaries in body because we have so many cap beds, these would have the most systemic blood vessel diameter highest - vena cavae (largest vessels) smallest - capillaries (smallest vessels, one cell at a time) dissecting aneurysm blood accumulates between the tunics of the artery and seperates them -usually because of degeneration of tunica media *differecne vs. regular --fills between layers --layers of artery degenerates --tunic media gets weak, can't hold it anymore systemic blood velocity highest - elastic arteries slowest - capillaries "drive thru window", needed for gas/nutrient exchange most common cause of aneurysms combination of arthersclerosis and hypertension most common site of aneurysms -abdominal aorta -renal arteries -arterical circle at the base of the brain -can cause pain by putting pressure on other structures aneurysm weak point in an artery or the heart wall -forms a thin-walled bulging sac that pulsates w. each heartbeat and may rupture at any time --usually in arteries **branching arteries is weak point, if blows out, blood is massive, BP goes down, and death can occur* Pressure___as you go from large ateries to large veins decreases; aorta = highest pressure SVC/IVC = lowest pressure hypotension chronic low resting BP -caused by blood loss, dehydration, anemia hypertension high blood pressure chronic is resting BP > 140/90 mmHg normal, young adult BP 120/80 mmHg - 110/70 mmHg diastolic pressure minimum arterial BP taken during ventricular relaxation between heart beats -pressure against arterial wall during ventricular relaxation arteries vs. veins ARTERIES vs. VEINS higher pressure no to little pressure thick walls/media media not as thick NO valves have valves smaller lumens larger lumens have elastic/ribbon candy NO elastic/ribbon candy more rounded lumen irregular lumen the great vessels BCS massive, largest in body systolic pressure peak arterial BP taken during ventricular contraction (ventricular systole) -pressure on arterial during ventricular contraction sphygmomanometer blood pressure cuff blood pressure (BP) force that blood exerts against a vessel wall; measured at brachial arterey of arm using blood pressure cuff arterial anastamoses two arteries merge provide 'alternate routes' of blood supply to tissues artervenous anastamosis (shunt) blood flows from an anrtery directly to a vein, bypasses the capillaries; occur: fingers, palms, toes, ears, where they reduce heat loss in cold weather venous anastamoses 2 options: 1. thru capillary bed 2. w/o capillary bed (arteriovenule shunt) --most common --one vein directly into another --provides alt route to avoid blockage anastamosis a point where 2 blood vessels merge think "branching" portal system 2 capillary beds -locations: kidneys, connecting hypothalamus and ant. pituitary, intestines to liver simplest pathway (Circulatory route) 1 capillary bed simplest and most common route of blood flow circulatory routes 1.) simplest pathway - 1 capillary bed 2.) portal system - 2 capillary beds 3.) arteriovenosus anastamosis - shunt 4.) venous anastamoses 5.) arterial anastamoses blood distribution 54% - veins 11% -arteries 5% - capillaries ______70% systemic circuit 12% - heart 18% - pulmonary circuit where does cholesterol, fats, etc. get put down in vessels? tunica media lumen gets smaller - thus increasing BP --vessels aren't as elastic --don't expand/contract capillary bed networks of capillaries, usually 10 to 100, supplied by a single metarteriole --where the exchange occurs precapillary sphincters -encircles entrance to one capillary -constriction of these reduces or shuts off blood flow thru their respective capillaries and diverts blood to tissues or organs elsewhere ----- OPEN (relaxed) - blood moves to capillary bed, BP down CLOSED (contracted) - no gas exchange occurs, blood moves right thru metarteriole, BP up metarteriole runs from arteriole to veing; -short vessel that link arterioles and capillaries -instead of continuous tunica medica, they have individual muscle cells space a short distance apart, each forming a precapillary sphincter that encricle the entrance to one capillary vaso vasorum blood vessel that feeds blood vessels -blood supply to blodd vessels sinusoid/discontinuous capillaries -liver and spleen -have large pores -sometimes BM nonexistent -blood cells too large to leave circulatin **to move big particle, need to use this fenestrated capillaries -small pores in BM and endothelial cells continuous capillaries -NO holes in endothelial or BM types of capillaries 1. continuous 2. fenestrated 3. sinusoid/discontinuous varicose veins bad valves in veins --causes: crossing your legs - stops valves from working efficiently, also standing for long period of time - blood pools in feet - can impact circulation - can develop clots only fix: remove them vein valves one way valves constructed similar to semilunar valves "common" means it will split into external and internal branches baroreceptors -pressure sensors (detect changes in pressure) -found in aorta and internal carotid arteries --monitors blood pressure, signaling brainstem ---decreased heart rate & vessels dilation in response to high blood pressure, and vice versa chemoreceptors oval bodies nbear branch of common carotids -monitor blood chemistry -mainly transmit signals to the brainstem resp. center -adjust resp. rate to stabilize pH, co2, and o2 -- both carotid bodies and aortic bodies arterial sense organs - 3 kinds 1. carotid sinusus (baroreceptors) 2. carotid bodies (chemoreceptors) 3. aortic bodies (chemoreceptors) aortic bodies an arterial sense organ -one to three chemoreceptors located in the aortic arch near the arteries to the head and arms -structurally similar to the carotid bodies and have same function carotid bodies an arterial sense organ -oval receptors near branch of common carotids -monitor blood chemistry --mainly transmit signals to the brainstem resp. center --adjust restp. rate to stabilize pH, co2, and o2 carotid sinuses baroreceptors (pressure sensors) -detech changes in pressure --walls on internal carotid artery --monitors blood pressure - signaling brainstem -----decreased heart rate and vessels dilation in response to high blood pressure and vice versa blood composition: body weight 7-8% - whole blood 92% - other fluid and tissues blood composition: volume 7-8% of whole blood divides into: 55% - plasma 45% - formed elements blood plasma - weight 55% of plasma of blood in body divides into: 7% - proteins 91.5% - water 1.5% - other solutes proteins - blood composition of the 7% proteins in plasma in blood; seperates into: 54% - albumin 38% - globulins 7% - fibrinogen albumins major contributor of blood viscosity & osmarity: -plasma proteins --increase half life of hormones --act as taxi cab --won't degrade or leave system quickly --smallest & most abundant --buffer pH of plasma formed elements 7 total: -erythrocyctes (RBCs) -platelets -Leukocytes (WBCs) --granulocytes (NEB) -----Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil --agranulocytes -----monocyte, lymphocyte breakdown of formed elements of the 45% of formed elements in blood, divide into: --Platelets --WBCs (smallest amount) --RBCs (highest amount) formed elements per L - highest concentration red blood cells, 4.8-5.4 million per L leukocytes (5 kinds) Granulocytes: -Neutrophils - 60-70% -Eosinophils - 2-4% -Basophils - 0.5-1% Agranulocytes: -Lymphocytes - 20-25% -Monocytes - 3-8% most abundant in plasma by % water - 91.5% most abundant in plasma by weight proteins - 7% plasma proteins play a vareity of roles including clotting, defense and transport of other solutes such as iron, copper, lipids, and hydrophobic hormones: 3 major categories: 1. albumins 2. globulins - 38% 3. fibrinogens - 7% globulins 38% of proteins of plasma **antibodies fibrinogens 7% of protein of plasma in blood ogen = inactive (precursor) -will be converted to Fibrin -needed to help w. clotting plasma - other solutes 1.5% of plasma of blood -electrolytes -nutrients -gases -regulatory substances -waste products viscosity the resistance of a fluid to flow, resulting from the cohesion of its particles. -it's the thickness or stickiness of a fluid. **Blood is 4.5-5.5 times as viscous than water why is blood a connective tissue? 3 classifications: cells -- RBCs, WBCs fiber -- fibrin matrix -- plasma hematocrit packed cell volume (PCV) - the % of whole blood volume composed of RBCs -centrifuge blood to seperate components --erythrocytes - heaviest/settle 1st, 37-52% TV --WBCs/platelets - Buffy coat, 1% TV --Plasma - Settles top, remainder of volume, 47-63% TV hematocrit values for men/women men: 42-52% women: 37-48% anemia erythrocytes below 37% polycythemia erythrocytes above 52% erythrocytes (RBCs) -most abundant blood cell (99.9%) -contains hemoglobin proteing which binds O2 and CO2 -shaped is concaved disk --cytoskeletal proteins, spectrin and actin present (help to keep shape) --no organelles/nucleus --typical lifespan = 120 days --flexible --stack when going thru capillaries hemoglobin -pigement molecule that binds O2 and CO2 -4 protein chains - 2 alpha, 2 beta, contains iron at center -also binds with carbon monoxide -single drop contains 280 million molecules, 33% of hemoglobin in cytoplasm -accounts for 95% of all RBC intracellular proteins -typical levels: male: 13-18 g/dl, females: 12-16 g/dl -98.5% of O2 in blood is bound to this sickle cell anemia -genetic disorder -hereditary hemoglobin defects -occur mostly amoung african or mediterranean ancestry -caused by recessive allele that modifies structure of hemoglobin -sickle shaped RBCs -sticky & block small blood vessels -persons infected resistant to malaria oxyhemoglobin, HbO2 formed when iron binds with O2 - reaction is reversible deoxyhemoglobin, Hb not bound to oxygen --no O2 bound to hemoglobin -single red blood cell contains 280 million Hb molecules carbaminohemoglobin -formed when heme chains bind CO2 -CO2 binds to hemoglobin hemoglobin (Hb) structure ...