Unit 3 Bio and S&P
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jonesatcma on February 27, 2011
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126 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 selective attention | focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect. |
| inattentional blindness | failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere. |
| Gestalt | our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. |
| visual capture | tendency for vision to dominate the other senses. |
| figure-ground | organization of visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings |
| grouping | Gestalt idea - perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups. |
| binocular cues | depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes. |
| depth perception | ability to see objects in three dimensions although images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance. |
| visual cliff | laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. |
| monocular cues | depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone. |
| retinal disparity | binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. |
| convergence | binocular cue for perceiving depth; extent to which eye muscles move inward when looking at an object. The greater the inward strain, the closer the object. |
| perceptual constancy | perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change. |
| phi phenomenon | illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession. |
| perceptual adaptation | in vision- ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field. |
| perceptual set | a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. |
| human factors psychology | branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use. |
| stroboscopic motion | illusion of movement is produced by showing rapid progression of images or objects that are not moving at all |
| closure | gestalt idea for tendency to perceive a complete or whole figure even when there are gaps in what your senses tell you |
| relative size | monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away |
| relative height | monocular cue for perceiving depth; objects higher in our field of vision are perceived as farther away |
| interposition | monocular cue for perceiving depth; if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer |
| relative clarity | monocular cue for perceiving depth; hazy objects are farther away than sharp, clear objects |
| texture gradient | graduated change in texture, or grain, of visual field, whereby objects with finer, less detailed textures are perceived as more distant. |
| linear perspective | a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance |
| cocktail party effect | ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and background noises |
| transduction | transforming stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret. |
| bottom up processing | analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information |
| top down processing | information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations |
| feature detectors | nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement |
| synesthesia | sensory experiences may overlap so a patient may "hear" a color or "taste" a sound, phenomenon found in LSD users |
| perception | process of organizing and interpreting sensory info, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. |
| sensation | process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. |
| absolute threshold | minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. |
| psychophysics | study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. |
| signal detection theory | theory predicting how and when we detect presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes no single absolute threshold and detection depends on person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. |
| subliminal | below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness. |
| difference threshold | minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. |
| sensory adaptation | diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. |
| Weber's law | principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount). |
| accommodation | process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on retina. |
| iris | ring of muscle tissue that forms colored portion of eye around pupil and controls size of pupil opening. |
| lens | transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. |
| pupil | adjustable opening in center of eye through which light enters. |
| retina | light-sensitive inner surface of eye, containing receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin processing of visual info. |
| cones | retinal receptor cells concentrated near center of retina that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. |
| rods | retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision |
| blind spot | the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye; no receptor cells are located there. |
| fovea | central focal point in retina, around which eye's cones cluster. |
| optic nerve | nerve that carries impulses from the eye to brain. |
| Young-Helmholtz trichromatic Theory | theory that retina contains 3 different color receptors—red, green, & blue—which when stimulated in combination can produce perception of any color. |
| opponent-process theory | theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. |
| frequency | number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second). |
| pitch | tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. |
| cochlea | coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses. |
| frequency theory | in hearing, theory that rate of nerve impulses traveling up auditory nerve matches frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. |
| place theory | in hearing, theory that links pitch we hear with place where cochlea's membrane is stimulated. |
| kinesthesis | system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts. This sense allows you to accurately touch your mouth, nose, and chin with your index finger with your eyes closed. |
| vestibular sense | sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance. This also lets you know if your body is in a horizontal or vertical position. |
| cornea | curved protective layer through which light rays enters the eye. Light rays are bent here as well as in lens. |
| bipolar cells | specialized cells which connect rods and cones to the ganglion cells of the optic nerve |
| ganglion cells | specialized cells which lie behind bipolar cells whose axons form optic nerve which takes info to brain |
| endorphins | "morphine within"--natural, opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. |
| gate control theory | explanation for pain control that proposes we have a neural 'gate' that can, under some circumstances, block incoming pain signals. |
| auditory localization | The perception of the location of a sound source. |
| olfactory bulb | the first brain structure to pick up smell information from the nose which sends information on to the limbic system (no thalamus) |
| action potential | neural impulse; brief electrical charge that travels down axon. Generated by movement of positively charged atoms (Na and K) in and out of channels in axon's membrane. |
| axon | extension of neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. |
| dendrite | bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward cell body. |
| myelin sheath | insulating layer of segmented fatty tissue encasing axons of many neurons; enables vastly greater speed of neural impulses |
| neuron | nerve cell; basic building block of nervous system. |
| threshold | min level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. |
| neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that traverse synaptic gaps between neurons. |
| synapse | junction between axon tip of sending neuron and dendrite or cell body of receiving neuron. |
| acetylcholine | neurotransmitter that triggers muscle contraction. |
| central nervous system (CNS) | brain and spinal cord. |
| peripheral nervous system (PNS) | sensory and motor neurons that connect central nervous system (CNS) to rest of the body. |
| autonomic nervous system | part of peripheral nervous system, which controls glands, and muscles of internal organs (such as heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. |
| interneurons | central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. |
| parasympathetic nervous system | division of autonomic nervous system that calms body, conserving its energy. |
| somatic nervous system | division of peripheral nervous system that controls body's skeletal muscles. Also called skeletal nervous system. |
| sympathetic nervous system | division of autonomic nervous system that arouses body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. |
| reflex | nerve response that goes to brain only after movement has occurred - simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as knee-jerk response |
| endocrine system | body's "slow" chemical communication system; set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. |
| hormones | chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another. |
| adrenal glands | pair of endocrine glands just above kidneys. Secrete hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and nor-epinephrine (nor-adrenaline), which help to arouse body in times of stress. |
| pituitary gland | endocrine system's most influential gland. Under influence of hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. |
| electroencephalogram (EEG) | amplified recording of waves of electrical activity that sweep across brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on scalp. |
| fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) | a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; scans show brain function |
| MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) | a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain. |
| PET (positron emission tomography) scan | a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. |
| brainstem | oldest and central core of brain, beginning where spinal cord swells as it enters skull; responsible for automatic survival functions. |
| medulla | base of brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. |
| reticular formation | nerve network in brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. also screens out unneeded sensory information |
| amygdala | two lima bean sized neural clusters that are components of limbic system and are linked to emotion especially fear |
| cerebellum | "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. |
| limbic system | doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at border of brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. |
| thalamus | brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of brainstem; it directs messages to sensory receiving areas in cortex and transmits replies to cerebellum and medulla. |
| hypothalamus | neural structure lying below thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern endocrine system via pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion. |
| cerebral cortex | intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers cerebral hemispheres; body's ultimate control and info-processing center. |
| frontal lobes | portion of cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. |
| occipital lobes | portion of cerebral cortex lying at the back of head; includes visual areas, which receive visual info from opposite visual field. |
| parietal lobes | portion of cerebral cortex lying at the top of head and toward rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. |
| temporal lobes | portion of cerebral cortex lying roughly above ears; includes auditory areas, each of which receives auditory info primarily from opposite ear. |
| motor cortex | strip of cortex at back of frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. |
| sensory cortex | strip of front of parietal lobes that processes body touch and movement sensations. |
| association areas | all areas of cerebral cortex are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. |
| aphasia | impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's or Wernicke's areas |
| Broca's area | controls language expression - area of frontal lobe, usually in left hemisphere, that direct muscle movements involved in speech. |
| Wernicke's area | controls language reception - brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; in left temporal lobe. |
| plasticity | brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) |
| corpus callosum | large band of neural fibers connecting two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. |
| split brain | condition in which two hemispheres of brain are isolated by cutting connecting fibers (mainly those of corpus callosum) between them. a treatment for severe epilepsy |
| axon terminal | endpoint of neuron where neurotransmitters are stored |
| depolarization | sodium rushes into neuron through membrane, potassium ruses out; results in a change in charge to a positive charge |
| refractory period | period after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming message until axon gates are closed and resting potential is restored |
| reuptake | process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from synaptic cleft by the presynaptic axon |
| schizophrenia | disease in part explained by excessive dopamine |
| Phineas Gage | railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in development of the understanding of localization of brain function |
| lateralization | localization of function on either right or left sides of brain |
| phantom limb | sensations that appear to originate in a limb that has been amputated |
| agonists | drugs which mimic activity of neurotransmitters |
| antagonists | drugs that block function of a neurotransmitter |
| hippocampus | neural structure in limbic system associated with memory and learning |
| pons | part of brain involved in sleep and arousal |
| refractory period | period after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming message may be until ion balance is restored to resting potential |
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