Biology Trimester 2 Exam Review
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maryrood11 on March 5, 2011
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99 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Independent Variable vs. Dependent Variable | Independent variable is the cause, while the dependent variable is the effect, data collected from experiments |
| Controls | Quality Control |
| Negative Control | No effect happens to certain cause |
| Positive Control | Demonstrates that the materials and tools for the experiments are working normally |
| Constants | Keep everything about the experiment the same EXCEPT for the independent variable (cause) |
| Hypothesis | Educated guess on the effect before the experiment has taken place |
| Hydrogen Peroxide | H2O2 |
| Liver+Hydrogen Peroxide Reaction | When the H2O2 is added on the liver, there is foaming, bubbling. |
| Polymer | Cells link monomers together into long chains (polymers) |
| Protein | Polymer constructed from 20 kinds of monomers that are called amino acids |
| Protein Jobs | Structure (hair and nails) Movement (Muscles move bones) Molecular Machines to copy DNA "Turbines" to make ATP Chemical Reactions (enzymes) Immunity/Defense (antibiotics) Communication (Cell to Cell) |
| Amino Acid Structure | -Have central carbon atom -Amino Group -Carboxyl Group -H Atom -Has its' own unique side group |
| Polypeptide vs. Protein | A polypeptide is a protein in the "baby stage" meaning it is still forming |
| Protein Structure | -built from amino acids (20 types of amino acids) -the sequence of the a.a. determines the final shape of the protein -Large Molecules |
| Protein Shape | -Begin as single file chain of amino acids -Chain folds up into 3D shape (determined by a.a.) -Some amino acids are attracted to each other and will create the folds and bends in the protein chain. |
| Membrane Pathway | 1. The nucleus (transcription) (mRNA) 2. Translation (ribosomes read/build amino acids) (tRNA) 3. Polypeptide goes to the endoplasmic reticulum 4. Golgi Aparatus |
| Denaturing a Protein | Unfavorable change in temperature, pH level, quality of the environment that will cause a protein to unravel and lose its' normal shape. |
| Enzyme Functions | Force chemical reactions to occur that wouldn't otherwise The machinery that makes the reactions happen 2H2O2----> 2H2O+O2 |
| Why do living organisms need enzymes? | Living organisms need enzymes because it will break down toxic chemicals into chemicals that our body can use hydrogen peroxide is toxic but enzymes break it down into water and oxygen |
| How enzymes work | Enzymes have a reaction site where the first chemical is locked in, then the reaction happens and the two different chemicals break away. |
| Nucleotides | the building blocks (monomers) of nucleic acid polymers Four types of nucleotides make up DNA Has a deoxyribose (ring shaped sugar), phosphate group (phosphorus atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms) and a nitrogenous base (single or double ring or carbon and nitrogen atoms with functional groups) |
| Complementary Base Pairing | Of the four base pairs, A only pairs with T and G only pairs with C Due to sizes of bases |
| DNA | DeoxyriboNucleic Acid Double Helix Ribose (sugar) makes sides of the twisted latter (double helix) |
| RNA | The copy of DNA In RNA the base pairs change. C still pairs with G, but the T base turns into a U, meaning that A pairs with U. |
| Gene | Stretch of nucleotides which codes for building a protein |
| Transcription | Making a copy of a gene that can be taken out of the nucleus (RNA is the copy) |
| Translation | Every three bases (codon) becomes one amino acid. UAC=Tyr CCG=Pro |
| Mutations | Any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. Base substitution Base Deletion |
| Base Substitution | AUGAAG-->AUGACG (the substitution A-->C will change the amino acid codon and effect the whole gene) |
| Base Deletion | AUGGUG-->AUGUG (the deletion of the second G will make all the rest of the Bases move over changing all the amino acid codons after the deletion) |
| Messanger RNA | mRNA Transcribed from DNA template Requires enzymes and energy like ATP mRNA has the information from DNA copy |
| Transfer RNA | tRNA translates the three-letter codons of mRNA to the amino acids that make up proteins different version of tRNA for each amino acid |
| Ribosomal RNA | rRNA made of proteins helps read mRNA |
| Anticodon | Specific triplet of bases |
| Process: Translation | 1. mRNA and tRNA with amino acid and two subunits of the ribosome are brought together 2. Amino acids are added to the chain (translation) 3. Ribosome reaches stop codon 4. Translation stops 5. Completed polypeptide is set free by tRNA all this happens in less than a minute |
| Ribosomes | Construct proteins in a cell Some are bound to the outer surface of a membrane network within the cytoplasm (make proteins in membranes) Other ribosomes are suspended in the cytoplasm. (make enzymes and other proteins that stay in the cytoplasm) |
| Nucleus | Atoms protons and neutrons are tightly packed together in a central core. |
| Nuclear Envelope | pair of membranes that surrounds the nucleus |
| Nucleolus | contains a ball-like mass of fibers and granules |
| ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) | An extensive network of membranes within the cytoplasm of a cell |
| Rough ER | Produces proteins that are inserted into the ER Produces proteins that are in vescules |
| Smooth ER | Lacks the ribosomes Build lipid molecules (cells in ovaries and sex hormones) |
| Asexual Reproduction | Single cell splits in half Parent cell becomes the two daughter cells Daughter cells are identical Faster than sexual reproduction Mitosis |
| Sexual Reproduction | Two parents Half set of DNA is given to the offspring by each of the two parents Offspring are genetically unique Meiosis |
| Chromosome | Way of organizing/spooling DNA into dense pieces that are easy to move around |
| Chromatin | Unspooled DNA Easy to access enes |
| Histone | Spool that DNA wraps around |
| Nucleosome | Package of coiled DNA and histone |
| Sister Chromatids | Identical sequences of DNA |
| Centromere | place where sister chromatids meet |
| Stages of the Cell Cycle | Interphase 1. G1: Growth, protein synthesis 2. S: Synethsis (DNA is copied/replicated) 3. G2: Metabolism ("eating" making proteins, maintianing organelles Mitotic 1. Mitosis: Cell division, produces two identical daughter cells 2. Cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm among daughter cells |
| Purpose of Cell Cycle | Reproduction of cells |
| Purpose of Mitosis | Produces two daughter cells |
| Prophase | DNA coils into chromosomes (two sister chromatids joined at the centromere) Nuclear membrane disappears Spindle forming |
| Metaphase | Chromosomes gather Line up end to end in single file |
| Anaphase | Spindle fibers pull the chromatids apart (identical daughter chromosomes) |
| Telophase and Cytokinesis | Cell splits into two daughter cells Nuclear envelope forming |
| Homologous Chromosomes | A pair of chromosomes that have the same genes, but might code for different variations of that gene ie hair: brown, black, red, blonde |
| Purpose of Meiosis | Produces four sex cells (gametes) |
| Tetrads | paired chromosomes (4) |
| Meiosis I | Homologous chromosomes are separated |
| Prophase I | Sister chromosomes in tetrads exchange genetic material Spindle forming |
| Metaphase I | Tetrads line up DOUBLE FILE |
| Anaphase I | Spindle fibers pull the homologous chromosomes apart Sister chromatids remain attached |
| Telophase I and Cytokinesis | Cell dividing Nuclear envelope forming |
| Meiosis II | Sister chromatids are separated (like in Mitosis) but the resulting cells are haploid instead of diploid |
| Prophase II | Spindle forms Moves individual chromosomes to middle of cell |
| Metaphase II | Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell (single file) |
| Anaphase II | Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite sides |
| Telophase II and Cytokinesis | Arrive at sides Cell splits Four daughter cells are produced |
| Diploid | 2n Cell with two homologous sets of chromosomes |
| Haploid | n Cell with single set of a chromosome |
| Zygote | Fertilized egg diploid |
| Gametes | Sex cells |
| Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis | 1. Meiosis produces four offspring Mitosis produces two offspring 2. Metaphase lineup: Single file for Mitosis Double file for Meiosis 3. Parent and Daughter cells are identical in Mitosis Unique in Meiosis 4. Diploid in Mitosis Haploid in Meiosis 5. 4 steps in Mitosis 8 steps in Meiosis |
| Similarities between Mitosis and Meiosis | Cell Division Mitosis and Meiosis II are the same |
| Cystic Fibrosis Symptoms | Coughing, weezing, enlarged liver and heart, delayed puberty, greasy stool, thick/sticky mucus, mucus blocking digestive tubes, constant sweating/salty skin. |
| Cystic Fibrosis Causes | Defect in CFTR gene, Mutation of chromosome 7 (causes protein to be messed up), mucus build up (recessive gene) |
| Inheritance of Cystic Fibrosis | Recessive Gene |
| Cystic Fibrosis Genetic Tests | DNA/Blood/Saliva sample checked for specific mutations Tag-It test |
| Exons and Introns | 24 exons in CFTR gene 23 introns in CFTR gene |
| Mutations of CFTR | There are over 1400 different mutations of the CFTR gene. |
| Gregor Mendel | 1860s Studied pea plants and how traits were passed through the parents (to the offspring) |
| True-breeding organisms vs. Hybrids | True-breeding organisms produce offspring that are always identical parents (farmers want true-breeding plants) Hybrids: Carriers. Product of cross breeding (Rr) |
| Law of Segregation | Two alleles for every gene and each allele is segregated into two gametes (sex cells) |
| Homozygous | True Breeding RR |
| Heterozygous | Hybrid Rr |
| Allele | Variations of a particular gene that lead to variations of a trait Homologous Pair |
| Dominant Allele | R |
| Recessive Allele | r |
| Independent Assortment | When alleles for different traits do not affect each other's inheritance (flower color and seed color) |
| Monohybrid Cross | Just looking at one trait |
| Dihybrid Cross | Looking at two traits |
| Punnett Square | Matrix that allows you to calculate the probability of specific parent's offspring's traits |
| Genotype | The two alleles for a specific gene that an individual has |
| Phenotype | The trait that is expressed (based on info from the genotype) |
| Pedigree | Family tree |
| Sex-linked Gene | Gene located in a sex chromosome (X or Y) More common in Males Males: XhY Females: XhXh Females would need too of the recessive allele to have the disease, while males would only need one |
| Linked Genes | 2 genes that are on the same chromosome |
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