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sigmund freud austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis alfred adler Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: basic mistakes, style of life, inferiority/superiority complexes, childhood influences personality formation; Studies: Birth Order karen horney Field: neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; Contributions: criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends carl jung Field: neo-Freudian, analytic psychology; Contributions: people had conscious and unconscious awareness; archetypes; collective unconscious; libido is all types of energy, not just sexual; Studies: dream studies/interpretation gordon allport Field: trait theory of personality; Contributions: list of 11,000 traits, 3 levels of traits-cardinal, central, and secondary hans and sybil eysenck Psychology theorists who suggested that personality could be reduced to two polar dimensions introversion-extraversion and emotional instability-stability (neuroticism). abraham maslow humanistic psychology; hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence carl rogers Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person martin seligman Field: learning; Contributions: Positive Psychology, learned helplessness; Studies: Dogs demonstrating learned helplessness albert bandura pioneer in observational learning (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play william sheldon Field: personality; Contributions: theory that linked personality to physique on the grounds that both are governed by genetic endowment: endomorphic (large), mesomorphic (average), and ectomorphic (skinny) jerome kagan Conducted longitudinal studies on temperament (infancy to adolescence) psychoanalytic perspective stresses the influence of unconscious forces on human behavior humanistic perspective School of thought that focuses on the study of conscious experience, the individual's freedom to choose, and capacity for personal growth. trait perspective an individual's unique collection of durable dispositions and consistent way of behaving constitutes personality social-cognitive perspective views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons (and their thinking) and their social context. personality an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. free association in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing psychoanalysis A set of techniques for exploring underlying motives and a method of treating various mental disorders unconscious according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware preconscious Information that is not conscious but is retrievable into conscious awareness latent content according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream manifest content according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content) id contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. This operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification ego the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. this operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain superego the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. psychosexual stages the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones. erogenous zones areas of the body that are particularly sensitive to sexual stimulation oral stage Freud's first stage of personality development, from birth to about age 2, during which the instincts of infants are focused on the mouth as the primary pleasure center. anal stage Freud's second stage of psychosexual development where the primary sexual focus is on the elimination or holding onto feces. The stage is often thought of as representing a child's ability to control his or her own world. phallic stage Freud's third stage of personality development, from about age 4 through age 7, during which children obtain gratification primarily from the genitals. latency stage Freud's fourth stage of psychosexual development where sexuality is repressed in the unconscious and children focus on identifying with their same sex parent and interact with same sex peers. genital stage Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence). fixation according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved Oedipus complex according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father identification the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos gender identity One's sense of being male or female. defense mechanisms in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. repression in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories regression psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated reaction formation psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings. projection psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others rationalization defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions displacement psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet sublimation a defense mechanism in which unacceptable energies are directed into socially admirable outlets, such as art collective unconscious Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history. projective tests a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli to trigger projection of one's inner thoughts and feelings reliability the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting validity the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to type a Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people type b Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people. endomorph round and heavy body type. ectomorph lean and little muscle development. mesomorph muscular and athletic body type thematic apperception test (tat) a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. rorschach inkblot test the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. terror-management theory Proposes that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death. archetypes According to Jung, emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning, emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning traits specific characteristic that varies from one individual to another myers-briggs type indicator a personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types factor analysis a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score the big 5 factors conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism openness, extraversion (CANOE) personality inventories questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several traits at once. minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI) the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes. empirically derived a test developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups (ex. MMPI) person-situation controversy A theoretical dispute concerning the relative contribution of personality factors and situational factors in controlling behavior self actualization according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential peak experiences transcendent moments of intense excitement and tranquility marked by a profound sense of connection to the world, According to Maslow, times in a person's life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved. unconditional positive regard according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person. self concept A sense of one's identity and personal worth. self esteem one's feelings of high or low self-worth self serving bias a readiness to perceive oneself favorably. spotlight effect overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders individualism giving priority to one's own goals over group goals, and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications collectivism giving priority to the goals of one's group reciprocal determinism the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors personal control our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless external locus of control the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate. internal locus of control the perception that one controls one's own fate learned helplessness condition in which repeated attempts to control a situation fail, resulting in the belief that the situation is uncontrollable and hopeless positive psychology the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive