AP Psych Practice

Terms	Definitions
Absolute Threshold	the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
Accomadation (thinking-wise)	adapting one current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
Accomadation (Biology-wise)	The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
Acetylcholine	a neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction
Undersupply of acetylcholine equals	Alzheimer's disease
Achievement Motivation	a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard
Achievement Test	a test designed to assess what a person has learned
Acoustic Encoding	the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
Acquisition	The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
Action Potential	a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. the action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane
Active Listening	Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy.
Acuity	the sharpness of vision
Adaption-Level Phenomenon	our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience.
Adolescence	the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
Adrenal Glands	a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. the adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress.
Aerobic Exercise	sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate depression and anxiety
Aggresion	any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy
Algorithm	a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier -- but also more error-prone -- use of heuristics
Alpha Waves	the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
Altrusim	unselfish regard for the welfare of others
Alzheimer's Disease	a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning
Amnesia	the loss of memory
Amphetamines	drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
Amygdala	two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion
Anorexia Nervosa	an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.
Antisocial Personality Disorder	a personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members; may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist
Anxiety Disorders	psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety
Aphasia	impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to wernicke's area (impairing understanding)
Applied Research	scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Aptitude Test	a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
Assimilation	interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas
Association Areas	areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
Associative Learning	learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
Attatchment	an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on seperation
Attitude	a belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events
Attribution Theory	the theory that we tend to give a casual explanation for someone's behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition
Audition	the sense of hearing
Autism	a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind
Automatic Processing	unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
Autonomic Nervous System	The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
Availability Heuristic	estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Aversive Conditioning	a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)
Axon	the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
Babbling Stage	Beginning at 3 to 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
Barbiturates	drugs that depress the activity of the Central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement
Basal Metabolic Rate	the body's resting rate of energy expenditure
Basic Research	pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
Basic Trust	according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Behavior Genetics	The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
Behavior Therapy	therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.
Behavioral Medicine	an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease
Behaviorism	the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Belief Bias	the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid
Belief Perseverance	clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Binocular Cues	depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on use of two eyes.
Bio-Psycho-Social Perspective	a contemporary perspective which assumes that biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors combine and interact to produce psychological disorders
Biofeedback	a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension
Biological Psychology	A branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)
Biological Rhythms	Periodic physiological fluctuations
Bipolar Disorder	a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania
Blind Spot	the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
Bottom-Up Processing	analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
Brainstem	The oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
Broca's Area	controls language expression-an aread of the frontal, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Bulimia Nervosa	an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise
Bystander Effect	the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present
Cannon-Bard Theory	the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion
Case Study	an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Catharsis	emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.
Central Nervous System	The brain and spinal cord
Cerebellum	the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance
Cerebral Cortex	the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
Chromosones	threadlike structures contain genetic information passes through cells
Chunking	organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
Circadian Rhythm	the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
Classical Conditioning	a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.
Client-Centered Therapy	A humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth.
Clinical Psychology	a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
Cochlea	a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
Cognition	all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Cognitive Dissonance Theory	the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.
Cognitive Map	a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
Cognitive Therapy	therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy	a popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therapy with behavior therapy
Collective Unconscious	Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
Collectivism	giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly
Color Constancy	perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
Compasionate Love	the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined
Complementary and Alternative Medicine	Unproven health care treatments not taught widely in medical schools, not used in hospitals, and not usually reimbursed by insurance companies
Computer Neural Networks	Computer circuits that mimic the brain's interconnected neural cells, performing tasks such as learning to recognize visual patterns and smells
Concept	a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Concrete Operational Stage	in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
Conditioned Reinforcer	A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.
Conditioned Response (CR)	in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)	In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.
Conduction Hearing Loss	hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Cones	Receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
Confirmation Bias	a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
Conflict	a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
Conformity	adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Consciousness	our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Conservation	the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Content Validity	the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (such as a driving test that samples driving tasks).
Echoic Memory	a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Eclectic Approach	an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy
Continuous Reinforcement	reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Control Condition	the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Convergence	a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object
Coronary Heart Disease	the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries
Corpus Callosum	the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Correlation Coefficient	A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
Counterconditioning	a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning. Includes systematic desensitization and aversive conditioning
Creativity	the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
Criterion	the behavior (such as future college grades) that a test (such as the SAT) is designed to predict; thus, the measure used in defining whether the test has predictive validity.
Critical Period	an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
Critical Thinking	thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
Cross-Sectional Study	a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
Crystallized Intelligence	one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
CT (computed tomography) Scan	A series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body (CAT Scan)
Culture	the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
Defense Mechanisms	in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
Deindividuation	the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity
Deja Vu	that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
Delta Waves	the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
Delusions	false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders
Dendrite	the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
Dependent Variable	the experimental factor that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
Depressants	drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.
Depth Perception	the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
Developmental Psychology	a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
Difference Threshold	the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference. (Also called just noticeable difference or jnd.)
Discrimination	in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
Displacement	psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet
Dissociation	a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
Dissociative Disorders	disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings
Dissociative Identity Disorder	a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder.
DNA	a complex molecule containing genetic information that make up the chromosomes.
Double-Blind Procedure	an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
Down Syndrome	A condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup
Dream	A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
Drive-Reduction Theory	the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
DSM-IV	the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders
Dualism	the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact
Ecstacy	synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen that produces euphoria
Effortful Processing	encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Ego	the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
Egocentrism	in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view
Electroconvulsive Therapy	a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
Electroencephalogram	an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
Embryo	the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
Emotion	a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience
Emotional Intelligence	the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions
Empirically Derived Test	a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups
Empiricism	the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment.
Encoding	the processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning
Endocrine System	the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Endorphins	"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
Environment	every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us
Equity	a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it
Estrogen	a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.
Evolutionary Psychology	The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. Natural selection has favored genes that designed both behavioral tendencies and information-processing systems that solved adaptive problems faced by our ancestors, thus contributing to the survival and spread of their genes.
Experiment	a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
Experimental Condition	the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
Explicit Memory	memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
Exposure Therapies	behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid
External Locus of Control	the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate
Extinction	the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
Extrasensory Perception	the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.
Extrinsic Motivation	a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

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AP Psych Practice

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