| Term | Definition |
|---|
| biological psychology | a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.) (Myers Psychology 8e p. 054) |
| action potential | neural impulse; brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. Generated by movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 055) |
| axon | extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 055) |
| dendrite | the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 055) |
| myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath | a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 055) |
| neuron | a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 055) |
| threshold | the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 056) |
| neurotransmitters | chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 057) |
| synapse [SIN-aps] | junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 057) |
| acetylcholine [ah-seat-el-KO-leen] (ACh) | a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 058) |
| endorphins [en-DOR-fins] | "morphine within"—natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 059) |
| central nervous system (CNS) | the brain and spinal cord. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 061) |
| nervous system | the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 061) |
| peripheral nervous system (PNS) | the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 061) |
| autonomic nervous system | the part of the peripheral nervous system, which controls the glands, and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 062) |
| interneurons | central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 062) |
| efferent neurons | neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 062) |
| nerves | neural "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 062) |
| parasympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 062) |
| afferent neurons | neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 062) |
| somatic nervous system | the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 062) |
| sympathetic nervous system | the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 062) |
| reflex | a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 063) |
| neural networks | interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 064) |
| endocrine system | the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 065) |
| hormones | chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 065) |
| adrenal [ah-DREEN-el] glands | a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and nor-epinephrine (nor-adrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 066) |
| pituitary gland | the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 066) |
| electroencephalogram (EEG) | an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 068) |
| lesion | tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 068) |
| fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) | a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 069) |
| MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) | a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 069) |
| PET (positron emission tomography) scan | a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 069) |
| brainstem | the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 071) |
| medulla | the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 071) |
| reticular formation | a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 071) |
| amygdala | two lima bean sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 072) |
| cerebellum | the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 072) |
| limbic system | a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 072) |
| thalamus | the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 072) |
| hypothalamus | a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 073) |
| cerebral cortex | the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 074) |
| glial cells | cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 075) |
| frontal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 076) |
| occipital lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 076) |
| parietal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 076) |
| temporal lobes | the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 076) |
| motor cortex | an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 077) |
| sensory cortex | the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 078) |
| association areas | areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 079) |
| aphasia | impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding). (Myers Psychology 8e p. 080) |
| Broca's area | controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 081) |
| Wernicke's area | controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 081) |
| plasticity | the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 082) |
| corpus callosum | the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 084) |
| split brain | a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them. (Myers Psychology 8e p. 084) |
| soma | cell body of a neuron |
| axon terminal | the endpoint of a neuron where neurotransmitters are stored |
| resting potential | electrical charge across the cell membrane of a resting neuron in which the fluid interior of the axon is negative |
| depolarization | sodium rushes into neuron through membrane, potassium ruses out; results in a change in charge |
| refractory period | period after firing when a neuron will not fire again no matter how strong the incoming message until axon gates are closed and resting potential is restored |
| excitatory neurotransmitter | chemical secreted at terminal button that causes the neuron on the other side of the synapse to fire |
| inhibitory neurotransmitter | chemical secreted at terminal button that prevents (or reduces ability of) the neuron on the other side of the synapse from firing |
| reuptake | process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane |
| schizophrenia | disease in part explained by excessive dopamine |
| Parkinson's disease | disease in part explained by too little dopamine |
| Alzheimer's disease | destruction of acetylcholine neurons leads to memory losses of this disease |
| cerebral spinal fluid | circulates through brain and spinal cord to protect and nourish cells |
| ventricles | series of interconnected cavities within the cerebral hemispheres and brainstem filled with cerebrospinal fluid |
| gyrus | raised fold or elevation in the surface of the brain |
| sulcus | narrow grooves in tissue on the surface of the brain |
| grey matter | bodies of nerve cells that make up outer surface of brain - responsible for higher level functions |
| white matter | nerve cells below surface of cortex which connect to inner parts of the brain |
| blood brain barrier | protects the brain by preventing substances from entering its tissues |
| norepinephrine | neurotransmitter that in addition to serotonin is responsible for mood |
| gaba | major inhibitory neurotransmitter |
| glutamate | excitatory neurotransmitter that like achetlcholine is involved in memory |
| trephination | operation that removes a circular section of bone from the skull which dates back to prehistoric times |
| frontal lobotomy | surgery that is now illegal which cut fibers in the frontal lobe. Left patient apathetic, withdrawn |
| phrenology | a now abandoned study of the shape of skull as indicative of the strengths of different faculties |
| traumatic brain injury | blow to the head or a penetrating head injury that damages the brain |
| Phineas Gage | railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function |
| evoked potential | EEGs resulting from a response to a specific stimulus |
| forebrain | top of the brain which includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex; responsible for emotional regulation, complex thought, memory aspect of personality |
| midbrain | Region between the hindbrain and the forebrain |
| hindbrain | the posterior portion of the brain including cerebellum and brainstem |
| meninges | protective membrane (one of 3) that envelops the brain and spinal cord |
| pia mater | innermost meningeal layer; bound firmly to the underlying neural tissue |
| arachnoid mater | middle layer of the meninges |
| dura mater | the thick, tough, outermost membrane of the meninges |
| cerebrum | large part of the brain that controls the senses and thinking |
| fissure | long narrow slit or groove that divides an organ into lobes |
| plasticity | brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development |
| homunculus | map of the body represented in primary motor (or somatosensory) cortex with an exaggerated human form |
| Roger Sperry | scientist who won a Nobel Prize for work with SPLIT BRAIN patients |
| lateralization | localization of function on either the right or left sides of the brain |
| phantom limb | sensations that appear to originate in a limb that has been amputated |
| androgen | male sex hormones that produce or stimulate development of male characteristics |
| estrogen | female steroid sex hormones that are secreted by the ovary and responsible for typical female sexual characteristics |
| progesterone | hormone produced by the ovaries which acts with estrogen to bring about the menstral cycle. |
| behavioral genetics | the study of how genes and environment interact to influence psychological activity |
| chromosomes | threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes. |
| zygote | fertilized egg |
| homozygous condition | two genes in a specific pair are the same |
| heterozygous condition | situation that occures when two genes in a specific pair are different |
| dominant allele | gene whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present |
| recessive allele | gene that is masked when a dominant gene is present |
| genotype | genetic makeup of an organism |
| phenotype | physical traits that appear in an individual as a result of its gentic make up. |
| polygenic traits | traits controlled by two or more genes |
| twin studies | studies of identical and fraternal twins to determine the relative influence of heredity and environment on human behavior |
| monozygotic | developed from a single fertilized egg-identical twins |
| dizygotic | derived from two separately fertilized eggs - fraternal twins |
| teratogens | agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm |
| gender identity | one's sense of being male or female |
| gender typing | the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role |
| evolutionary psychology | the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection |
| natural selection | a natural process resulting in the evolution of organisms best adapted to the environment |
| agonists | drugs which mimic the activity of neurotransmitters |
| antagonists | drugs that block the function of a neurotransmitter |
| hippocampus | neural structure in limbic system associated with memory and learning |
| nucleus accumbens | dopamine activated area which is brain's pleasure center |
| auditory cortex | area of the brain in the temporal lobe that interprets nerve impluses as sound. |
| visual cortex | located in the occipital lobe this is the main center for interpreting visual information |
| cerebellum | the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance |
| pons | part of brain involved in sleep and arousal |
| pituitary gland | the master gland of the endocrine system growth hormone |
| thyroid | endocrine gland in neck that secretes thyroxin, controls metabolic rate |
| parathyroid | endocrine gland embedded in the thyroid that maintains calcium levels in blood |
| thyroxin | hormone that controls metabolic rate |
| epinephrine | affect sympathetic nervous system in stress response also known as adreniline |
| pancreas | part of endocrine system that produces insulin |
| gonads | reproductive glands-male, testes; female, ovaries |
| testosterone | male sex hormone |
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