Chem Final
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190 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 valence electrons | electrons in the outermost energy level |
| period | the rows of the periodic table |
| group (family) | the columns of the periodic table |
| representative elements | have their s-sublevels and their p-sublevels filled; called this because it is easy to predict how the will react; (columns 1-2 and 13-18) |
| transition metals | elements with unpredictable characteristics; end in d-sublevels;(columns 3-12) |
| 4 Scientists who Contributed to the Periodic Table | Doberiener, John Newlands, Mendeleev, Henry Moseley |
| Doberiener | German; worked in 1817; |
| Method: organize elements by their similar properties then mass relationship | ... |
| organized elements into "triads" (elements with similar properties and a mass relationship); | ... |
| problems with method: not all elements fit into triad, no connection between triads | ... |
| John Newlands | Britain; worked in 1863 |
| Method: line elements up by atomic mass then similar properties (pattern; started the chart this way) | ... |
| "Octaves": his groups of 8 elements with similar properties | ... |
| Problems with method: pattern of chemical similarity breaks down for the heavier elements | ... |
| Mendeleev | Russia; worked in 1869 |
| Method: line elements up by atomic mass then look for a pattern with properties at varying intervals (opened up the table for columns 3-12) | ... |
| periods: what he named his groups | ... |
| problems with method: not all of the elements needed were discovered (left blank spots), thought that the properties of Te and I were more important than their mass and that the mass of I was probably wrong | ... |
| Henry Moseley | Britain; worked in 1917 |
| figured out that I should be in front of Te because of their atomic number | ... |
| method: line up elements by atomic number then look for similar properties at varying intervals | ... |
| Meyer | Germany; worked in 1969 (doing research at the same time as Mendeleev); came up with the same method as Mendeleev but Mendeleev had his work published first |
| groups vs families | groups are numbered while families are named |
| Noble Gases | group 18; not highly reactive |
| Halogens | group 17; literally means "salt maker" |
| Alkali Metal family | Li --> Fr (Hydrogen is excluded) |
| Alkaline Earth Metals | group 2 |
| periodic properties | a property whose value changes in a cyclic, predictable way |
| 4 periodic properties | size, ionization energy, electron affinity, electronegativity |
| size | measure the distance between the nuclei of 2 atoms and divide it in half (called the 'radius') |
| 2 factors that influence size: number of levels of electrons, strength of the nucleus | ... |
| Trends in size: down in groups = size increases (more levels); left to right across periods = decreases (nucleus is smaller and pulls the electrons in closer) | ... |
| Ion | a charged particle that does not have an equal amount of positive and negative particles |
| ionization energy | the energy needed to remove an electron from an atom |
| trends: as you move left to right across a period = increases (smaller the atom, higher the IE); down in groups = decreases (larger atoms, lower IE) | ... |
| **when sublevels are filled or half-filled, the ionization energy is higher | ... |
| electron affinity | measures the attraction an atom has for its electrons |
| trends: large atoms = low electron affinity; small electrons = high electron affinity | ... |
| electronegativity | measures the attraction an atom has for electrons it is sharing with another atom in a compound |
| trends: large atoms = low electronegativity; small atoms = high electronegativity | ... |
| metalloid | elements that lie on the dividing line between nonmetals and metals that have properties and characteristics of both |
| 8 metalloids | B, Si, Po, Bi, Sb, Te, Ge, As |
| transition elements (metals) | elements whose reactions are harder to predict because there are several ways they can react |
| light | form of energy that travels as a wave |
| amplitude | height or depth of a wave |
| crest | high point of a wave |
| trough | low point of a wave |
| cycle | one cycle = up, down and up |
| wave length | measure from beginning of cycle to the end of the cycle; usually measured from crest to crest; identifies the type of light it is; measured in metric units |
| symbol of wave length | Greek lambda (upside down "y") |
| speed of light | 3.00 x 10^8 m/s; measured in meters per second (m/s; ms^-1) |
| symbol for speed of light | c |
| frequency of a wave | cycles/time;measured in Hertz (can be written as "Hz"; 1/s; s^ -1) |
| symbol of frequency | Greek nu (script "U") |
| wavelength equation | distance/cycle |
| speed of light equation | wavelength (distance/cycles) x frequency (cycle/time) = speed (distance/time) |
| inverse relationship of wavelength to frequency | wave gets longer, frequency gets lower; they are inversely proportional to one another |
| refraction | bending of light waves as they pass through a prism; creates a rainbow (continuous spectrum) |
| defraction | bending of light waves as they pass through a narrow slit |
| line spectrum | not a full rainbow, but lines of color appear |
| Max Planck | proposed that matter can only absorb or emit a certain amount of energy |
| quantum | amount of energy in a photon; Planck use the term to represent a certain amount of energy |
| quantatized | energy that is absorbed or emitted in only certain amounts |
| Planck's Equation | E (energy) = h (Planck's constant) x "nu" (symbol for frequency) |
| Einstein | investigating to "photoelectric effect" |
| electricity | flow of electrons |
| bright red light | there are more packages of energy in brighter red light, but they are the same size |
| blue light | has a different wavelength and frequency than red light that gives it different properties; bigger packages of energy |
| light's dual nature | light normally acts like a wave but it also acts like a stream of packages of energy that makes it give off electricity |
| photon | package of visible light energy |
| Joule | unit of measurement for energy; symbol = "J" |
| Neils Bohr's Theory | electrons must exist in certain energy levels; no electrons in between levels of energy because amount of energy an electron has is limited; electrons can absorb certain amounts of energy (from heat or electricity) and use the energy to "jump" to a higher energy level; electrons must return to the lower energy level and as they do, they release the absorbed energy in the form of light |
| Bohr's theory explains... | why types of energy is so unique because the energy changes are definite so the frequency, wavelength and color of light are different; Bohr's theory is true, but it only works for Hydrogen |
| Bohr's calculations | calculated that the amount of energy released after dropping down levels in the difference between the amounts of energy in each level; found the frequencies and wavelengths for the types of light he saw with Hydrogen |
| Why the theory only worked with Hydrogen | only force he had to consider was the force of attraction but with other elements the force of repulsion between electrons needed to be taken into account |
| Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle | (early 1920's) we can never know with certainty both the location and the motion of an electron |
| Louis de Broglie | showed that electrons have a dual nature, like light because when going through crystalline NaCl, the electrons acted like a wave when it is defracted |
| dual nature of electrons | electrons can act as both matter (particles) and energy (wave) |
| standing wave | has a particular starting point that is also its ending point; crest must stay in the same place; electrons are standing waves (wavelength fits exactly because electron has the exact amount of energy needed; when it absorbs energy, it needs the right wavelength to fit around the nucleus exactly) |
| Schrodinger | wrote an equation treating the electron as a wave; has 4 unknowns called "quantum numbers" which specify in detail where the electron is |
| wave function | possible solutions for Schrodinger's equation; represented by Greek "psi"; |
| "psi" ^2 ("psi" squared) | represents the probability that the electron will be located at a particular point in space; location depends on energy of the electron (lower energy = closer to the nucleus) |
| orbital | most probable location of an electron; given as a picture |
| principal quantum number | symbol = n; tells which energy level the electron is on and determines the size of the orbital; energy levels are unevenly spaced |
| secondary quantum number | symbol = l; tells which sublevel the electron is on and determines the shape of the orbital; sublevels are repetitively numbered and also lettered |
| magnetic quantum number | symbol = m; tells which direction and which orbital the electron is on and determines the direction of the orbital; the orbitals are numbered |
| spin quantum number | symbol = s; tells the direction of the spin of the electron; each orbital can hold 2 electrons; s = -1/2 or 1/2 |
| s-orbitals | are sphere shaped; only difference between sublevels is the size |
| p-orbitals | are dumbbell shaped; difference is the direction toward which it is oriented |
| d-orbitals | flower shaped; located between the axis |
| 3 methods of electron configuration | ordinary notation, orbital notation, dot notation |
| ordinary notation | placement of the electron relates to the element's placement on the periodic table; columns 1-2 end on s-sublevel, columns 2-12 end on d-sublevels and columns 13-18 end on p-sublevels |
| Noble Gas Shortcut | find the Noble Gas with the number right before it and write the remainder of the electrons |
| orbital notation | shows the spin of the electrons; not used for large atoms; put bar in between energy levels to show difference in energy |
| dot notation | least detailed; dots are placed clockwise; put dots only for the entire outer layer; number of dots matches column number |
| 3 filling rules for electron configuration | Auf Bau Principle; Pauli Exclusion Principle and Hund's rule |
| Auf Bau principle | electrons will fill in the lowest available orbitals first |
| Pauli Exclusion Principle | no 2 electrons in an atom can have the same set of quantum numbers (only 2 electrons fit on an orbital) |
| Hund's Rule | electrons will spread out to separate orbitals on a sublevel before they double up on one (pay attention to this with orbital notation) |
| ground state | all of the electrons are in the expected places |
| excited state | the electron is not found in the lowest available place |
| exceptions to the 3 filling rules | Chromium (has only one electron in 4s and five in 3d) |
| Copper (has only one electron in 4s and nine in 3d) | ... |
| why do the exceptions happen? | to make the elements more stable with full or half full sublevels |
| dot notation shows | the similarities or differences in properties based on electrons in the outer levels |
| *remember for test* | watch for units in equations!; sublevels begin to overlap, so 4s comes between 3p and 3d |
| Democritus | Greek thinker; came up with the idea of "atomos"; thought that there would eventually be a smallest piece |
| Aristotle | Greek thinker; denied the existence of atoms; said matter was infinitely divisible |
| 1700s | new evidence concerning atoms came from mass measurements |
| 1800s | Dalton's explanation revived the Atomic Theory |
| Atomic Theory | all matter is made of atoms; pictured atoms of the same element as identical to one another (emphasized sameness because of mass); different elements have different atoms especially in mass; chemical reaction was just a rearrangement of atoms (meant that the mass before and the mass after the reaction would be the same) |
| William Crookes | 1896; interested in the affects of electricity going through gas; created Crookes Tube (partially evacuated tube) and found that electricity and gas react to make a "glow" that is really a stream of negatively charged particles (used a magnet to show the particles flowed from negative to positive) |
| J.J. Thompson | 1897; used the Cathode Ray Tube (modification of Crookes Tube which concentrated the glow into a ray) to discover electrons; established the charge to mass ratio and found that it is always the same no matter what the gas is; new is was a high ratio with a strong negative charge and a low mass |
| cathode | negative terminal of a battery |
| anode | positive terminal of a bettery |
| Goldstein | 1898; modifies Thompson's CRT (limited the space where electrons could be observed and created a space for the positive particles to go); was the first to observe "glow" from positive particles |
| J.J. Thompson | 1898; worked with Goldstein and found the charge to mass ratio of positive particles and found it much lower than electrons (explained that the positive particle has a heavier mass but an equal charge as an electron); found that the ratio is different depending on the gas |
| Robert Millikan | 1909; only American Scientist; did the "Oil Drop Experiment"; balanced gravity and negative repulsion to find the charge of the positive particle |
| J.J. Thompson | made the "plum pudding model" of the atom which showed that everything that wasn't an electron in an atom was positive |
| Henry Bequerel | 1896; France; worked with fluorescent rocks and eventually discovered radiation |
| Alpha Radiation | has the same mass of a Helium atom; has a double positive charge; made of heavy, positively charged particles |
| nuclear equation | shows the radioactive decay of radioactive material |
| half-life | how long it takes for radioactive material to break down into something new |
| radioactive decay | what happens when the nucleus of a radioactive material breaks apart |
| Beta Radiation | lightweight, negative particles |
| Gamma radiation | has no mass and no charge; very strong version of an X-ray |
| Marie Curie | Polish girl hired by Bequerel to find other radioactive elements; found 2, Radium and Polonium |
| + | separates chemical reactants |
| --> | used instead of equal sign |
| (s) | in solid form |
| (l) | in liquid form |
| (g) | in gaseous form |
| (aq) | a solution |
| word equation | has names; does not tell about amounts |
| skeleton equation | symbols; takes charges into account |
| chemical equation | properly balanced; tells what and amount of what is being worked with |
| order when balancing equations | metals, nonmetals, PAIs |
| 7 diatomic ions | N, O, F, Cl, Br, I, H |
| synthesis reaction | 2 reactants form one product |
| decomposition reaction | one reactant forms 2 products |
| combustion reaction | something reacts with oxygen; forms only oxides |
| Double Replacement reaction | 2 compounds switch "partners" |
| Single Replacement Reaction | one element replaces the other in the compound |
| element + element | forms binary compound; synthesis reaction |
| metal oxide + water | forms metal hydroxide (base); synthesis reaction |
| Base | metal hydroxide used to offset the effects of an acid |
| nonmetal + water | forms acid; synthesis reaction |
| binary compound | forms element + element; decomposition reaction |
| metal hydroxide (base) | forms metal oxide + water; decomposition reaction |
| acid | forms metal oxide + water; decomposition reaction |
| metal chlorate | forms metal chloride + water; decomposition reaction |
| metal carbonate | forms metal oxide + carbon dioxide; decomposition reaction |
| element + oxygen | forms oxide; combustion reaction |
| hydrocarbon + oxygen | forms carbon dioxide + water; combustion reaction |
| active metal + ionic compound | forms less active metal + ionic compound: SR reaction |
| active metal + acid | forms compound + hydrogen; SR reaction |
| active metal + water | forms metal hydroxide + hydrogen; SR reaction |
| active nonmetal + ionic compound | forms less active nonmetal + ionic compound; SR reaction |
| activity series | list measuring the activity of elements; metals high on the list are more active and can replace metals that are low on the list which are less active; determines whether single replacement reaction will work |
| double replacement reaction will only happen if... | one product is a precipitate, water or gas |
| solution + solution | forms solid (precipitate) + solution; DR reaction |
| a precipitate will NEVER have: | nitrate (NO3), acetate (C2H3O2), ammonium (NH4), any element from the first column of elements (H-Fr) |
| Acid + Base | forms water + compound; DR reaction |
| common gas products | HCN, SO3, CO2, NH4; will always be covalent compounds |
| ammonium, 1 | NH4 |
| mercury (I), 2 | Hg2+2 |
| acetate,-1 | C2H3O2 |
| chlorate, -1 | ClO3 |
| chlorite, -1 | ClO2 |
| cyanide, -1 | CN |
| hydroxide, -1 | OH |
| hypochlorite, -1 | ClO |
| hydrogen carbonate, -1 | HCO3 |
| iodate, -1 | IO3 |
| nitrate, -1 | NO3 |
| nitrite, -1 | NO2 |
| perchlorate, -1 | ClO4 |
| permanganate, -1 | MnO4 |
| hydrogen sulfate, -1 | HSO4 |
| bromate, -1 | BrO3 |
| carbonate, -2 | CO3 |
| chromate, -2 | CrO4 |
| dichromate, -2 | Cr2O7 |
| sulfate, -2 | SO4 |
| sulfite, -2 | SO3 |
| oxalate, -2 | C2O4 |
| peroxide, -2 | O2 |
| silicate, -2 | SiO3 |
| phosphate, -3 | PO4 |
| arsenate, -3 | AsO4 |
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