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enzyme a chemical that speeds up a reaction between substances, digestive enzymes break down complex foods to simpler substances; they are given names that end in -ase amino acids small building blocks of proteins, like links in a chain, released when proteins are digested tonsils masses of lymphatic tissue on either side of the back of the mouth rugae ridges on the hard palate and the wall of the stomach pulp soft tissue within a tooth, containing nerves and blood vessels salivary glands parotid, sublingual, and submandibular glands; they surround and empty into the oral cavity; these exocrine glands produce saliva esophagus tube connecting the throat to the stomach; 9 to 10 inch muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach (eso- means inward; phag/o means swallowing) epiglottis a flap of tissue that covers the trachea when swallowing occurs so that food cannot enter and become lodged there stomach muscular organ that receives food from the esophagus; parts include the fundus (proximal section), body (middle section), and antrum (distal section) lower esophageal sphincter (LES) ring of muscles between the esophagus and the stomach that relaxes and contracts to move food from th esophagus into the stomach; also called cardiac sphincter pyloric sphincter ring of muscle at the end of the stomach near the duodenum; from the Greek pyloros, meaning gatekeeper; it's normally closed, but opens when a wave of peristalsis passes over it to allow food to leave the stomach when it is ready small intestine (small bowel) extends for 20 feet from the pyloric sphincter to the first to the first part of the large intestine; made up of three parts: duodenum (1 foot long), jejunum (~8 feet long), and the ileum (~11 feet long) villi microscopic projections in the wall of the small intestine that absorb nutrients into the bloodstream; tiny capillaries absorb the digested nutrients into the blood stream and lymph vessels liver a large organ located in the RUQ of the abdomen; it secretes bile; stores sugar, iron, and vitamins; produces blood proteins; and destroys worn-out red blood cells; in a normal adult it weighs about 2.5 to 3 pounds hyperbilirubinemia high levels of bilirubin (yellow/orange pigment) in the bloodstream; jaundice common bile duct carries bile from the liver and gallbladder to the duodenum; also called the choledochus glycogenolysis/ gluconeogenesis breakdown of glycogen to release sugar bile digestive juice (yellow or orange fluid) made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder, it travels from the gallbladder into the small intestines to help break up (emulsify) large fat globules; it was originally called gall (Latin bilis, meaning gall or anger), probably because it has a bitter taste; composed of bile pigments, cholesterol, and bile salts pancreas organ under the stomach; produces insulin (for transport of sugar into cells) and enzymes (for digestion of food); gland under and behind the stomach amylase enzyme secreted by the pancreas to digest starch; enzyme that digests (breaks down) starches into simpler substances (such as sugars) colon large intestine (bowel), consisting of the cecum; the ascending, transverse, and descending segments of the colon; and the rectum sphincter circular ring of muscle that surrounds an opening or orifice and it constricts a passage or closes a natural opening exocrine external secretions of a gland, which reach an epithelial surface either directly or through a duct; the pancreas has exocrine functions: produces enzymes to digest starch, such as amylase, digest fat, such as lipase, and digest proteins, such as protease cec/o cecum celiac pertaining to the abdomen cheil/o lip colostomy new opening of the colon to the outside of the body mesentery membrane that holds the intestine together; a fold of the peritoneum attaching the small intestine to the dorsal (back) body wall; literally, it lies in the middle, mes-, of the intestines, a membrane attaching the intestines to the muscle wall at the back of the abdomen what are the two parts of the mesentery? the omentum and mesocolon; the omentum actually hangs down like an apron over the intestines anastomoses a surgical procedure that creates a new opening between two previously unconnected tubular organs or parts of the same organ; different types: end to end, end to side, side to side parenteral pertaining to by some route other than through the gastrointestinal tract, as by intravenous injection gingiv/o gums labi/o lip stomat/o mouth fundus upper portion of the stomach anorexia lack of appetite; -orexia = appetite; it is often a sign of malignancy or liver disease; anorexia nervosa is loss of appetite associated with emotional problems such as anger, anxiety, and irrational fear of weight gain ascites abnormal accumulation of fluid in the abdomen; occurs when fluid passes from the bloodstream and collects in the peritoneal cavity; can be a sign of neoplasm or inflammatory disorders in the abdomen, venous hypertension (high blood pressure), caused by liver disease (cirrhosis), or heart failure; treatment includes diuretic drugs and paracentesis to remove abdominal fluid dysphagia difficulty in swallowing; feels like a "lump in the throat" when a swallowed bolus fails to progress, either because of a physical obstruction (obstructive) or because of a motor disorder in which esophageal peristalsis is not coordinated (motor) jaundice (icterus) Yellow-orange coloration of the skin and whites of the eyes caused by high levels of bilirubin in the blood (hyperbilirubinemia); can occur when 1. excessive destruction of erythrocytes, as in hemolysis, causes excess bilirubin in the blood; 2. malfunction of liver cells (hepatocytes) due to liver disease prevents the liver from excreting bilirubin with bile; or 3. obstruction of bile flow, such as from choledocholithiasis or tumor, prevents bilirubin in th bile from being excreted into the duodenum steatorrhea fat in the feces; frothy, foul-smelling fecal matter; improper digestion or absorption of fat can cause fat to remain in the intestine; may occur with disease of the pancreas (pancreatitis) when pancreatic enzymes are not excreted; also a sign of intestinal disease that involves malabsorption of fat oral leukoplakia white plaques or patches on the mucosa of the mouth caused by infection with the herpesvirus; painful fluid-filled blisters on the lips, palate, gums, and tongue, commonly called fever blisters or cold sores. caused by herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV1); treatment is with medication to relieve symptoms; Herpes genitalis (HSV2) occurs on reproductive organs; both conditions are highly contagious endocrine pertaining to internal secretion, secreting into the bloodstream; an endocrine drug is a hormone or hormone-like drug; androgens, estrogens, and glucocorticoids; pancreas has endocrine functions: secretes insulin to help release sugar from the blood, (insulin acts as a carrier to bring glucose into cells of the body to be used for energy) Crohn disease chronic inflammation of the intestinal tract (terminal ileum and colon); signs and symptoms include diarrhea, severe abdo pain, fever, anorexia, weakness, and weight loss; Crohn's and UC are forms of IBD; treatment is with drugs to control symptoms or by surgical removal of diseased portions of the intestine with anastomosis of remaining parts diverticula pouch-like herniations through the muscular wall of the colon; form when the mucous membrane lining of the colon bulges through the muscular wall; fecal matter can become trapped in them and result in pain and rectal bleeding diverticulosis abnormal outpouchings in the intestinal wall esophageal varices swollen, varicose veins at the lower end of the esophagus; liver disease (such as cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis) causes increased pressure in veins near and around the liver (portal hypertension); this leads to enlarged, tortuous esophageal veins with danger of hemorrhage (bleeding); treatment includes drug therapy to lower portal hypertension and banding or tying off the swollen esophageal veins GERD gastroesophageal reflux disease; solids and fluids return to the mouth from the stomach; heartburn is the burning sensation caused by regurgitation of hydrochloric acid from the stomach to the esophagus; chronic exposure of esophageal mucosa to gastric acid and pepsin leads to reflux esophagitis; drug treatment includes antacid (acid-suppressive) agents and medication to increase the tone of the LES ileus loss of peristalsis with resulting obstruction of the intestines; surgery, trauma, or bacterial injury to the peritoneum can lead to a paralytic ileus (acute, transient loss of peristalsis) colonic polyps polyps (benign growths) protrude from the mucous membrane of the colon; they can be pedunculated and sessile; they are often removed for biopsy and to prevent growth leading to malignancy intussusception telescoping of the intestines; one segment of the bowel collapses into the opening of another segment; it often occurs in children and at the ileocecal region; intestinal obstruction with pain and vomiting can occur; surgical removal of the affected segment of bowel with anastomosis frequently is necessary to correct the obstruction cholelithiasis gallstones in the gallbladder; calculi (stones) prevent bile from leaving the gallbladder and bile ducts; many asymptomatic but some patients experience episodes of biliary colic (pain from blocked cystic duct or cbd) so treatment may be required; currently laparoscopic cholecystectomy is performed to remove the gallbladder and stones viral hepatitis inflammation of the liver caused by a virus; in all types liver enzyme levels may be elevated, indicating damage to liver cells; signs and symptoms include malaise, anorexia, hepatomegaly, jaundice, and abdominal pain Hepatitis A (HAV) benign disorder spread by contaminated food or water and characterized by slow onset of symptoms, complete recovery expected Hepatitis B (HBV) transmitted by blood transfusion, sex, or use of contaminated needles or instruments, severe infection can cause destruction of liver cells, cirrhosis, or death Hepatitis C (HCV) transmitted by blood transfusions or needle inoculation; the acute illness may progress to chronic hepatitis and hepatocellular carcinoma -ectasis stretching, dilation, dilatation, widening -stenosis tightening, stricture, narrowing dyspepsia difficult digestion cholestasis flow of bile from the liver to the duodenum is interrupted proptosis forward protrusion of the eye (exophthalmos) hemoptysis spitting up blood from the respiratory tract, a sign of bleeding and disease within the bronchial tubes and lungs -rrhagia bursting forth (of blood) menorrhagia excessive bleeding at the time of menstruation, abnormally heavy or prolonged menstruation dysmenorrhea pain associated with menstruation, painful cramping association with menstruation -rrhaphy suture -rrhea flow, discharge bronchospasm involuntary contraction of the bronchial muscles; a chief characteristic of bronchitis and asthma lymphangiectasia dilation of smaller lymphatic vessels usually results from obstruction in larger vessels hematemesis vomiting blood, a sign of bleeding from the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract lysis destruction, breakdown, separation; can be used as a suffix or as its own separate term stasis stopping, controlling; can be used as a suffix or as its own separate term pyloric stenosis narrowing of the pyloric sphincter that blocks the passage of food from the stomach into the duodenum; projectile vomiting in an infant during feeding is a clinical sign of this esophageal atresia a congenital anomaly in which the esophagus does not connect with the stomach; a tracheoesophageal fistula often accompanies this abnormality http://o.quizlet.com/i/iccNl9I1T-8CUfPz79UXMw.jpg biliary atresia congenital hypoplasia or non-formation of bile ducts causes neonatal cholestasis and jaundice; congenital absence of the opening from the common bile duct into small intestine (duodenum) emesis (emetic) vomiting; if a child swallows poison, the physician may prescribe a drug to induce emesis example of an emetic is a strong solution of salt or ipecac syrup ptosis drooping, sagging, protruding; can be used as a suffix or as a separate term cheilosis a disorder of the lips characterized by crack-like sores at the corners of the mouth; characterized by scales and fissures on the lips and resulting from a deficiency of vitamin B2 in the diet celiac disease inherited autoimmune disorder, villi in the small intestine are damaged by the immune system when the affected person eats food containing gluten (a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye); malabsorption and malnutrition occur; treatment consists of a lifelong gluten-free diet; also called celiac sprue cholangitis inflammation of the bile ducts; cholecystectomy excision or removal of the gallbladder colectomy surgical removal (excision) of the colon (large intestine); surgeons perform laparoscopic-assisted colectomy (LAC) as an alternative to open colectomy to remove nonmetastatic colorectal carcinomas pancreatoduodenectomy this is a Whipple procedure, a surgical treatment for pancreatic cancer colonoscopy visual endoscopic examination of the colon stool culture test for microorganisms present in feces; feces are placed in a growth medium and examined microscopically barium enema lower gastrointestinal series; x-ray images of the colon and rectum obtained after radiologists inject barium (a contrast medium) by enema into the rectum ileostomy surgical formation of an artificial opening from the ileum to the outside of the body through the abdominal wall lipase enzyme (-ase) that digests fats; produced by cells in the pancreas and secreted into the duodenum palatoplasty surgical repair of the palate laparoscopy visual (endoscopic) examination of the abdomen with a laparoscope inserted through small incisions in the abdomen; process of visually examining the contents of the abdomen (using an endoscope) gastrojejunostomy new surgical opening between the stomach and the jejunum; an anastomosis; the procedure is part of a gastric bypass surgery splenic flexure downward bend of the colon on the left side of the body toward the descending colon liver function tests (LFTs) tests for the presence of enzymes and bilirubin in blood; performed on blood serum; examples include tests for ALT and AST which are enzymes present in many tissues, levels are elevated in the serum of patients with liver disease; high ALT and AST levels indicate damage to liver cells (as in hepatitis) serum bilirubin blood test to determine the amount of the waste product bilirubin in the bloodstream; elevated in patients with liver disease and jaundice stool guaiac test to detect occult (hidden) blood in feces; important screening test for colon cancer; guaiac is a chemical from the wood of trees; when added to a stool sample, it reacts with any blood present in the feces percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography x-ray examination of the biliary system performed after injection of contrast into the bile ducts; in this type the contrast medium is injected using a needle placed through the abdominal wall into the liver endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) use of an endoscope combined with ultrasound to examine the organs of the gastrointestinal tract computed tomography (CT scan) a series of x-ray images are taken in multiple views (especially cross section); uses a circular array of x-ray beams to produce the cross-sectional image based on differences in tissue densities; use of contrast material allows visualization of organs and blood vessels and highlights differences in blood flow between normal and diseased tissues magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) magnetic waves produce images of organs and tissues in all three planes of the body; this technique doesn't use x-rays; it detects subtle differences in tissue composition, water content, and blood vessel density, and can show sites of trauma, infection, or cancer gastric bypass bariatric surgery; reducing the size of the stomach and diverting food to the jejunum (gastrojejunostomy); this is bariatric surgery for severe obesity; the Roux-en-Y gastric bypass procedure reduces the size of the stomach to a volume of 2 tablespoons and bypasses much of the small intestine gastrointestinal endoscopy visual examination of the gastrointestinal tract using an endoscope liver biopsy removal of liver tissue for microscopic examination; a physician inserts a needle through the skin to remove a small piece of tissue for microscopic examination; the average sample is less than 1 inch long; the procedure helps doctors diagnose cirrhosis, chronic hepatitis, and tumors of the liver paracentesis abdominocentesis; surgical puncture to remove fluid from the abdomen; this procedure is necessary to drain fluid (accumulated in ascites) from the peritoneal (abdominal) cavity GI gastrointestinal Nasogastric tube (NG tube) used to remove fluid postoperatively and to obtain gastric or intestinal contents for analysis; tube is inserted through the nose and into the stomach where it is suctioning secretions from the stomach NPO nothing by mouth (Latin nil per os) urea ... ureters ... meatus ... urethra ... voiding ... rennin ... erythropoitin ... glomeruli ... Bowman capsule ... nephron ... glomerular filtration ... tubular reabsorption ... tubular secretion ... creatinine ... electrolyte ... nitrogenous wastes ... sodium (Na) ... cystitis ... nephrolithotomy ... bacteriuria ... renal calculi ... pyel/o ... renal colic ... ureteroileostomy ... urethral structure ... albuminuria ... diuresis ... uremia ... urinary retention ... anuria ... acidic ... alkaline (basic) ... ketones ... pH (of urine) ... pyuria ... nephrolithiasis ... nephrotic syndrome ... renal hypertension ... hilum ... Wilms tumor ... diabetes insipidus ... diabetes mellitus ... glycosuria ... blood urea nitrogen (BUN) ... retrograde pyelogram (RP) ... KUB ... hemodialysis ... ESWL ... ADH ... UA (urinalysis) ...