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covalent bond atoms sharing a pair of electrons. Ex: H2O hydrogen bond attraction of partial charges. Ex: H2O with other ionic particles and they also hold the base pairs in DNA together polar molecules attract each other and do not attract nonpolar molecules nonpolar have no charge and nonpolar molecules attract each other what are the four macromolecule carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and they all contain carbon monomer the small subunit molecule which make the molecule a chain dimer 2 monomers put together in a chain polymer many links of monomers hydrolysis reaction breaking apart a polymer, it puts water and and a monomer falls out dehydration the monomer takes place of a water molecule to add on a link of monomer to a chain enzyme are need for building up or breaking down (dehydration and hydrolysis). Catalysts for reactions in the body and are reusable. carbohydrate fuel for making ATP. Ex: Glucose (C6H12O6) monosaccharide a monomer of carbohydrate disaccharide 2 monomers of carbohydrates, occurs when dehydration occurs, disaccharides are used for quick energy polysaccharide a chain of carbohydrates, include strach, glycogen and cellulose cellulose structural polysaccharide which plants use to make cell walls which helps them stand up and hold water glycogen polysaccharide, storage for animals which is found in our liver and muscle cells startch polysaccharide used for storage of energy in plants. Ex: potatoes are starch pouches chitin polysaccharide that is used for structure and is found in animals that have strong exoskeletons. Ex: insects glucose C6H12O6 monosaccharide and is fule for ATP amino acid monomer and when added together form a polypeptide/protein protein one or more polypeptide chain polypeptide chain of amino acids and 1 or more can make proteins peptide bond bond between two amino acids hydrophobic something that is soluble in water and is attracted to water hydrophilic nonpolar and is not soluble in water denaturation unfolding of enzyme which can be caused by high or low pH or temperature conformation refolding an unfolded enzyme lipid not soluble in water and are hydrophobic they are used for growth, utilization of some vitamins, insulation, excellent energy source, major component of cell membranes triglyceride have 3 carbon backbone system with a hydrocarbon tail and can be called fatty acids, store lots of energy phospholipid have a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail creates a phospholipid bilayer which is the cell membrane amphipathic means a molecule is hydrophobic and hydrophilic sterol steroids, hormones and can be membrane structures such as cholesterol lipoprotein a layer of proteins that surround cholesterol and it moves cholesterol through the blood stream saturated (fat) have no double bonds this is found in animal fats and solid at room temperature. saturated fatty acids are straight which allows them to be a solid at room temperature unsaturated (fat) found in plant fats and has a double bond that occurs this kinks the fatty acid making them liquid at room temperature transmembrane protein goes through the entire phospholipid bilayer peripheral membrane a protein that sticks to the outside of the membrane glycoprotein protein with an oligosaccharide attached to it and this helps the cell be identified by other cells concentration gradient being high on the gradient means that a solution is very concentrated; in simple diffusion solutions go from high concentration to low concentration passive transportations are: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion and osmosis and they require no energy active transport require energy to move solutions across the cell wall facilitated diffusion movement is still down the concentration gradient and their is no energy needed. proteins in the cell wall helps this happen carrier protein transport polar molecules like sugars and amino acids, this transport is slower than a channel transport channel protein allow polar molecules to go through and some channels are gated and they open and close in response to specific signals osmosis passive transport of water through the cell membrane aquaporin water channels that create osmosis by facilitated diffusion usually because these cells need more water hypotonic the solution that has less of a solute dissolved in it; a hypotonic cell gains water from its surroundings hypertonic solution that has a lot of solute dissolved in it; a hypertonic cell loses water to its surroundings isotonic both solutions are equal in water ATP Used in active transport by hydrolysis which breaks off the last phosphate group giving the active transport the energy it needs pump movement against concentration gradient, when a phosphate from ATP attaches to the pump the pump changes shape allowing it to move molecules from one side to the other. Ex: sodium/potassium pump endocytosis a substance being brought into the cell exocytosis a substance being delivered outside of the cell vesicle membrane bound sac and is used in vesicular transport pinocytosis type of endocytosis, it is like the cell is drinking; non-selective transport of dissolved molecules phagocytosis taking in a large amount of molecules; like cell eating; it is non-selective and creates food vesicle receptor-mediated endocytosis very selective, the receptors are usually on the inside of a pit and it is called a coated vesicle b/c it has a specific destination LDL low density lipoprotein and it is the "bad cholesterol" it builds up in your blood vessels; HDL which is good cholesterol can get rid of LDL Coated pit receptors are in pit and is used in receptor-mediated endocytosis prokaryote have no nucleus and have different shaped ribosomes and all bacteria are all prokaryotes, have no organelles eukaryote bigger single cell then prokaryotes that has a nucleus and have organelles chromosome totally packed DNA with proteins surrounding it chromatin DNA coiled around histones DNA Dioxyribonucleic acid, base pairs are AGC and T, sugar is deoxyribose, has an OH group at #3 carbon spot of the pentose sugar, has two strands plasmid small circular DNA sometimes contains genes for antibiotic resistance nucleiod region in prokaryotes, region where the cell's DNA is located flagellum locomotion organelles of some bacteria Ribosome made up of two subunits mad of ribosomal RNA and proteins; can be free in cytosol or bound to ER and is used to make DNA extremophile organism that live in extreme conditions plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer that separates the outside of the cell from the inside organelle compartments in a Eukaryotic cell that perform different functions for the cell nucleus hold the DNA cytoplasm the area inside of the cell where organelles are endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell endoplasmic reticulum there is smooth ER and rough ER and the rough ER has ribosomes on it. the Smooth ER helps lipid production transport vesicle bring proteins to the golgi apparatus from the ER golgi apparatus modifies proteins further, sorts proteins and ships them lysosome breaks down substances in he cytoplasm like damaged organelles, marcomolecules and other substances peroxisome create H2O2 to break down poisons and then they break down H2O2 into water mitochondria make ATP for the cell and they have their own DNA chloroplast it does photosynthesis photosynthesis gives the plant cells its energy from the sun cytoskeleton network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm intermediate filament fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables they maintain cell shape and are used in anchoring organelles and form lamina in the nucleus, it cannot build up or break down microfilament are made of actin subunits and help with cell shape, muscle contraction, cell division and can build up and break down microtubule made of tubulin proteins, can build up and break down, used for chromosome movement and vesicle transport motor protein "walk" across the microtubles transporting vesicles, use ATP to walk model organism non-human organism that researchers can manipulate, with expectation that we can learn from them and apply it to humans nucleotide nitrogenous base with a phosphate group and pentose sugar group, create DNA nucleic acid made up of nucleotides and is DNA and RNA RNA Base pairs are AGC and U, sugar is ribose, has an OH group at #3 carbon spot of the pentose sugar and there is only 1 strand double helix shape that DNA is in, looks like a stair case DNA antiparallel the 2 DNA stands run in opposite direction which means that one run from 5' to 3' and the other side runs from 3' to 5' 5' is the end of the nucleic acid that has the phosphate group 3' is the end of the nucleic acid that has the carbon group and has an OH group on it complementary base pair A-T, G-C base-pairing complementary base pairing replication starts by separating the strands and each strand serves as a template which makes 2 daughter molecules template strand one half of the DNA that is unzipped origin of replication part on the DNA that starts the replication process, has to be high in As and Ts so they are easier to split apart which is where the bubble forms replication bubble where the replication of DNA starts and it separates into 2 replication forks replication fork where DNA polymerase III and the Ozazaki fragments being helicase unwinds the DNA and separates the the strands by breaking down the H bond topoisomerase ahead of helicase, it relieves supercoiling that is caused by the helicase unwinding the double helix single-stranded binding proteins bind to the single strand of DNA and keeps the strand unpaired DNA polymerase will build complementary base pair, it needs a 3' OH ligase connects all the pieces together primase adds a primer primer short piece of single-stranded RNA that is complementary to the DNA template and replication starts here leading strand built in the 5' to 3' direction it is continuous synthesis from the DNA polymerase III building the new DNA strand lagging strand strand that is synthesized from the fork towards the bubble and is synthesized in fragments continuous synthesis the continuous building of DNA by DNA polymerase III discontinuous synthesis fragments of DNA being build from the fork towards the bubble and is not sythesized continuously okazaki fragment beginning fragments from the fork towards the bubble nuclease enzyme that cuts nucleic acids and it cuts the distorted nuceic acids telomere at the end of DNA and it gets cut off and it is a repetition of TTAGGG telomerase rebuilds telomere in stem cells and germ cells transcription The synthesis of RNA using a DNA template translation mRNA to polypeptide, getting from nucleic acid language to protein language gene a segment of DNA that contains instructions for building a polypeptide promoter Where RNA polymerase attached "upstream" of start point RNA polymerase unwinds DNA, Adds nucleotides complementary to template strand, RNA strand built in 5' to 3' direction, no need for helicase, no need for primer mRNA is after transcription, uses a DNA template, that attaches to ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary structure of a protein codon three-nucleotide sequence of DNA or mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or termination signal; the basic unit of the genetic code tRNA transfer RNA, an RNA molecule that functions as an interpreter between nucleic acid and protein language by picking up specific amino acids and recognizing the appropriate codons in the mRNA aminoacyl tRNA synthetase enzyme that joins each amino acid to the appropriate tRNA anticodon a nucleotide triplet at one end of a tRNA molecule that recognizes a particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule genetic code codon makes a certain amino acid rRNA makes up part of the ribosome polyA tail tail at 3' end that stabilizes RNA molecule and the longer tail means it has a longer life introns noncoding, intervening sequence within a primary transcript that is removed from the transcript during RNA processing; also refers to the region of DNA from which this sequence was transcribed exons coding that is expressed and is left in during RNA processing splicing necessary for movement of RNA from nucleus to cytosol and it happens in the nucleus in the spliceosome spliceosome made up of small nuclear RNA and small nuclear ribonuclear proteins (snRNP) signal peptide a sequence of about 20 amino acids at or near the leading end of a polypeptide that targets it to the endoplasmic reticulum or other organelles in a eukaryotic cell mutation change in an organism's DNA missense mutation change in amino acid and the consequence can be non to server nonsense mutation introduction of a stop codon really bad mutation stop codon tells replication to stop and everything after it is not translated. consequence is a truncated (shortened) protein. reading frame area that is being replicated frameshift mutation the point of new/deleted base pair the rest of the DNA codons are different insertion the adding of a nucleotide pair causes a frameshift deletion losing a nucleotide pair, causes a frameshift chaperone are proteins that assist the non-covalent folding or unfolding and the assembly or disassembly of other macromolecular structures ubiquitin tag put on proteins to be destroyed protesome one pathway to protein destruction prion an infectious agent that is a misfolded version of a normal cellular protein. Prions appear to increase in in number by converting correctly folded versions of the protein to more prions spongiform encephalopathy caused by mutated prions and makes the brain sponge like structure of amino acid Carbon at the center bonded with a hydrogen, bonded with an amino group (NH2), Carboxyl Group (CO2H) and a R group which differs between amino acids amino acids that are soluble in water have ____ molecules NH, OH or SH primary structure of polypeptides linked series of amino acids with unique sequence secondary structure of polypeptides localized folding created by H bonding and the amino groups and carboxy groups do the hydrogen bonding alpha helix folding that occurs in secondary structure of polypeptide and it folds the polypeptide in a helical shape beta pleated sheet folding that occurs in secondary structure of polypeptides and it folds the polypeptide over itself tertiary structure of polypeptides three dimensional shaping of polypeptide and it occurs because of the interaction between R groups and hydrogen bonds and ionic bonding is very important for R group bonding quatemary structure the order and putting together of two or more polypeptides halophiles salt loving organism methanogens live in O2 free places thermophiles live in extremely hot areas C of base pairing Cytosine T of base pairing thymine U of base pairing uracil A of base pairing adenine G of base pairing guanine DNA polymerase I removes RNA primers and it fills in the gap with DNA nucleotides base pair substitution replacement of nucleotide pair with another and include: missense, silent mutation, nonsense mutation insertion/deletion additions or losses of nucleotide pair(s), change the reading frame of a DNA sequence