World History Exam 2
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102 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 Plato | Born in 428 BC. Grew up during the Peloponnesian war, he witnessed the execution of his own teacher (Socrates) and developed a hate toward democracy. Wrote a lot, including his masterpiece, The Republic. the cornerstone of his philosophy was the Theory of Ideal Forms. He was unable to gain satisfactory intellectual control of the world. Argument: extraordinarily difficult to understand virtue. Founded The Academy where he taught many students including Aristotle. |
| Theory of Ideal Forms | One of Plato's major theories. Argued that there are 2 worlds. The world in which we live is not genuine and pales in comparison to the ideal world. To understand virtue we must get into the ideal world and get out of the world we are currently in. |
| Utopia | An ideally perfect place especially in social, political, and moral aspects. For Plato, there were 4 social groups in Utopia: 1. Slaves 2. Farmers, Artisans, and Tradesmen (who were the only ones to own any land) 3. Auxiliaries 4. Guardians. In Plato's ideal state, philosophical elite should govern. |
| Auxiliaries | Class of people in Plato's utopia whose sole purpose was to defend the state from external dangers. They could not own property. They were not supposed to have a family, but they were chosen to mate and produce the best possible offspring. |
| Guardians | These were the members of the highest class of people in Plato's utopia, and Plato placed great importance on them. They came from the best children of auxiliaries. They were selected to go and receive education and training. They were picked based on knowledge and good morals, and they would eventually go on to govern. |
| The Republic | Plato's literary masterpiece that contained the first writings of utopia. |
| Plato Academy | Founded by Plato it was the very first European university. Not limited to just philosophy. |
| Aristotle | He was Plato's student and he studied at the Plato Academy for a very long time. he was an excellent student and he made intellectual innovations. He didn't believe in 2 separate worlds like Plato did. He created the theory of Form and Matter. Aristotle tutored Alexander the great. |
| Theory of Form and Matter | Aristotle transformed Plato's theory of ideal forms to create his own Theory of Form and Matter. Form: Ultimate reality or universal principle. Matter: Material manifestation of the ultimate reality of universal principle. According to Aristotle, philosophers could rely on studies as instruments to understand, research, and investigate patterns and reasoning. Aristotle developed an ethical/moral philosophy based on his view of the cosmos/universe: the universe has a hierarchical structure, the highest form of existence is the rational being and all other beings were around just to serve the rational being. |
| The Politics | Aristotle reached for an effective system of government, he studied constitutions. He came up with 3 good forms of government: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and Constitutional government. But, decided that constitutional government was the best form. |
| Mediterranean Triad | Constists of 1. Cereals (grains), 2. Olives (and olive oil), and 3. Vines/Wine. These three things were the root of the development of a market-oriented exchange economy in Greece. Athenians concentrated their production on olive oil and wine but because of the rocky terrain they were unable to grow grain, so they relied on extensive trade. |
| Greek Colonization | in the 6th century BC, there was a rapid increase in population. To relieve the population pressure, they established more than 400 colonies along the coast line of the Black and Mediterranean Seas. By the late 6th century, more Greeks lived in colonies than on the main land. However, these colonies were not controlled by central government. |
| Romulus and Remus | They are the legendary founders of Rome. Their evil uncle abandoned them by the flooded Tiber River, but a she-wolf came and saved them. Romulus founded Rome in 753 BC and established himself as the first king. |
| Etruscans | They were the very first people to dominate Italy. They were very strong and artistic people who had great techniques of temple building. The development of Tome initially received the most important impact from the Etruscans. They taught the Romans alphabet and numerals along with many elements of architecture, art, religion, and dress. In 509 BC Romans expelled the last Etruscan king and established a Roman Republic. |
| Consuls | The ancient Roman Republic had 2 consuls who were supreme magistrates. A magistrate is a civil or military officer with the power to administer and enforce law. Consuls were vary powerful and they had the ability to command troops. They held their position in office for one year and they had the power of veto over others decisions. Essentially, they were the heads of the state. |
| Praetor | Assistant consul. Annually elected magistrate of the ancient Roman Republic ranking below but having approximately the same functions as a consul. They were in charge of civil law (equivalent to our Chief Justice today). |
| Roman Senate | Consisted of roughly 300 men who cam from noble families. Members were appointed, not elected, and they held the position for life. The senate was the most powerful institution in the republic. |
| Assembly of Centuries | Military assembly, referred to as the basic unit of the Roman army. It was an assembly of military units organized into a voting body. |
| Assembly of Tribes | Civilian, nonmilitary assembly. They were much more democratic than the assembly of centuries. The territory of the Roman state was divided into geographic districts called tribes, people voted in these units according to residence. |
| Republic | A political system or form of government in which supreme power is in the hands of representatives elected by the people. **The Roman Republic was not a democratic republic b/c senators held their positions for life, instead it was an Aristocratic Republic. |
| Patricians | Noble families that made up a very small number of the population. They were exceedingly powerful and they monopolized the senate and magistrate positions. |
| Plebeians | Members of general citizenry in ancient Rome. They were socially and legally inferior to the Patricians. They were originally excluded from the senate and from all public offices except for the military tribune. They were also prohibited to marry Patricians. In the 5th century, they started a struggle/uprising to achieve equality. |
| Struggle of the Orders | The Plebeians eventually became annoyed with the inequality between the classes, so they initiated the struggle. It was a struggle between classes. The struggle led to the creation of Tribunes, a new marriage law allowing Plebeians to marry Patricians, and the Assembly of Tribes changed as well. Laws established by the Assembly of Tribes became binding to everyone, not just the Plebeians, and all citizens were people before the law. |
| Tribunes | An officer of ancient Rome elected by the Plebeians to protect their rights from the arbitrary acts of the Patrician magistrates. |
| Optimates | ... |
| Populares | ... |
| Latifundia | ... |
| Gracchi Brothers | Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were Plebeian nobles that attempted to pass land reform legislation and redistribute the land among the classes.. Their mother, Cornelia, was known as the perfect/ideal Roman mother. |
| Tiberius Gracchus | The 1st Populare. He tried to fix the problems that were caused by the Latifundia. He believed that the undermining problem of Rome was the decline of small farmers and the destruction of agrarian society would have negative consequences. His solution was land distribution and he sponsored a new law: no one could own more than 300 acres, and anything exceeding that would be seized by the state. He knew that the senate would not vote for his law, so he took it to the Assembly of Tribes where it was supported. The senators were furious and beat Tiberius to death. |
| Gaius Gracchus | Gaius was the brother of Tiberius Gracchus, he succeeded his brother. Gaius supported his brother's cause and was killed in a mob. |
| Gaius Marius | He was a General and Consul that redesigned the Roman army. He followed the lead of the Gracchi brothers in that he recruited his own army from the displaced landless farmers and the urban poor day laborers. Soldiers were intensely loyal to Gaius Marius. He became a consul 5 times and is the single most important political leader in the late century of Rome. He was very reform minded. |
| Lucius Sulla | He was the leader of the armies created by aristocrats in response to Gaius Marius. Very was very politically conservative. Like Marius, he recruited soldiers from the rural and urban poor. Lucius fought his way into Rome and civil wars broke out. There was a reign of terror under Lucius, and he sentenced to death roughly 10,000 people. He because known as the blonde butcher of Rome. |
| Julius Caesar | 100-44 BC. He was a celebrated Roman general and statesman, and was the conqueror of Gual. He became instrumental in the destruction of the Republic and replacing it with centralized imperial form of government. he was responsible for the conquest of Gaul and France, making him extremely popular. Caesar made himself Master of Rome and "Dictator for Life." In 44, he was assassinated, Roman senators stabbed him to death. After his death, Rome plunged into civil wars. |
| Gaul | Gaul was a region conquered by Caesar resulting in the expansion of Roman territory. Conquering Gaul made Caesar extremely popular which irritated the conservative leaders in the senate, so they requested that he return to Rome, and they eventually murdered him. |
| Gaius Octavian | The great nephew and heir of Caesar. He was the first Emperor of Rome since the collapse of the Republic. Mark Antony denied him of his inheritance because he himself wanted to be the principle heir. Eventually the senate had a falling out with Antony and called upone Octavian for help against Antony. After winning the Battle of Actium, The Roman Senate gave Octavian the new title of Augustus. He was the 1st Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. The Roman Republic was transformed into a centralized empire. |
| Mark Antony | ... |
| Cleopatra | ... |
| Battle of Actium | Cleopatra and Mark Antony vs. Gaius Octavian. Battle over the control of Roman lands. Octavian won, marking the end of the Roman Republic. Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt. |
| Augustus | ... |
| Diocletian | Reigned 284-305 CE, the end of the 3rd century. Known for his cruelty towards Christians. He decided to share administrative responsibility of governing the Roman Empire. He divided the Roman Empire into 4 prefectures. His greatest accomplishment was preserving the unity of the Roman Empire. One of his most important reforms was Tetrarchy. |
| Tetrarchy | The Rule of 4. Diocletian divided his Empire into 4 prefectures, each ruled by a tetrarch. |
| Hebrews | Nomadic people. Under Moses, they left Egypt and went to Palestine. They built an elaborate capital city in Jerusalem. |
| Abraham | ... |
| Moses | Taught that there was 1 supreme deity named Yahweh. |
| Yahweh | The creator and sustainer of the world, demanded that his followers have high moral standards and worship him. |
| Monotheism | Belief in only one supreme deity. |
| Judaism | Three main characteristics of Judaism: 1. Monotheism 2. Scriptures 3. Moral Concerns The Jewish community had a serious problem with group who considered the emperors to be Gods, and they refused to pay homage to the emperors. tensions between Jews and imperial authorities rose. The Jews rebelled, leading to the Jewish war. Christianity emerged in the context of rising tension between Jews and authorities. |
| Jesus of Nazareth | Taught that the kingdom of God was at hand. this teaching sounded like a threat can call to rebellion. Pontius Pilate had him arrested and ordered his crucifixion. Followers believe that Jesus is the son of God and his sacrifice would offset the sins of others. |
| Pontius Pilate | Prefect (governor) of Judea. Presided over the trial of Jesus and gave the order for his crucifixion. |
| New Testament | Writings and letters (many of the letters written by Paul) compiled by early Christians to make up the 2nd part of the Bible. |
| Old Testament | ... |
| Paul of Tarsus | He was a Jew and received training as a Rabbi, but he later converted to Christianity. He was one of the 12 apostles of Jesus and is known as the 2nd founder of Christianity. His unique and important contribution to the spread of Christianity was that his converts consisted not only of Jews, but also of Gentiles. He firmly believed that the message of Jesus should be preached to everybody. He created a comprehensive Christian theology: Death and resurrection of Jesus was the culminating event in Christianity. He demanded high moral standards from Christian followers. |
| Damascus | ... |
| Antioch | ... |
| Gentiles | One who is not of the Jewish faith or is of a Non-Jewish nation; Non-Jews. |
| Edicts of Diocletian | Four Edicts against Christians: 1. Destruction of Christian churches 2. Burning of Christian scriptures 3. Imprisonment of Christian clergy 4. Sentence to death for all those who refuse to sacrifice to the Roman Gods |
| Constantine the Great | 306-337 CE. He was the first emperor to profess Christianity. He was responsible for the Edict of Milan, extending toleration, contributing to the Christianization of Rome, and the development of a governing Christian class. He considered himself to be the 13th apostle. |
| Battle of Milvian Bridge | Constantine saw a flaming cross. He emerged victorious, and this prompted his decision to convert to Christianity. |
| Edict of Milan | Famous Edict by Constantine in 313 CE. Stated that Christians and all others should have the freedom to follow the kind of religion they favored. This was an important contribution to the Christianization of Rome, it extended toleration, and led to the development of a Christian governing class. |
| Theodosius the Great** | Christianity became the state religion under him. |
| Germanic Peoples | Invaded the Roman Empire and Established new states and kingdoms. This was the first essential element of new civilization in Europe. |
| Kingdom of Ostrogoths | ... |
| Kingdom of Visigoths | ... |
| Kingdom of the Franks | The longest standing of all the Germanic kingdoms. Primarily established by King Clovis. The single most important reason for their success was religion, Christianity. |
| Clovis | 465-511 CE. Primarily responsible for the establishment of the Kingdom of the Franks. By the time he died he had transformed the Franks into the most powerful and dynamic of all Germanic people. Exposure to Christianity led to the conversion of Clovis. He received baptism along with his entire army. By attracting the allegiance and support of the local Christian population and the Roman Catholic Church, Clovis received legitimacy. His successors held onto power until the early 8th century. |
| Pippin the Short | He opposed the Frankish king and appointed himself king, but to legitimize his kingship, he had to seek recognition from the pope. The anointment of Pippin was extremely important because it marked the beginning of theocratic monarchy. |
| Carolingian Dynasty | ... |
| Papacy | ... |
| Theocratic Monarchy | ... |
| Charlemagne | The son and successor of Pippin the Short. He made two extremely important contributions: 1. Expansion of the Carolingian Empire 2. Administrative centralization To bring about administrative centralization he relied on counts to maintain order, peace, and stability, but they weren't always reliable. Because of his inability to generate enough financial resources to maintain a centralized bureaucracy, he constantly travelled throughout the empire to maintain his authority. |
| Counts | Royal officials put in place by Charlemagne to represent royal authority in territorial entities called counties. |
| Missi Dominici | "Envoys of the Lord Ruler." New category of imperial officials implemented by Charlemagne. They were sent to travel through the empire and supervise provincial administration. |
| Muslims | ... |
| Magyars | ... |
| Vikings | Invaded the Carolingian Empire from the North is was the most successful of the invasions due to the fact that they were fantastic sailors in their shallow-draft boats. Consequences of the viking invasions were the disintegration of the Carolingian Empire and the formation of regional states. |
| Feudalism | Political and social order that decentralized public authority and responsibility rather than vest them in a central government. Local authorities exercised military and political power. Feudal institutions revolved around military relationships, and the most important one was the relationship between lord and vassal |
| Lord | ... |
| Vassal | ... |
| Benefice | A grant, typically grants of land, that the lord would give to a vassal. In return, the lord received allegiance, obedience, and many times military service. |
| Serfs | Peasant farmers. |
| Manors | ... |
| Bishop | ... |
| Pope | All successors of Peter became known as popes, the head of the Roman Catholic Church. |
| Gregory the Great | Known as the founder of the Papal States. He mobilized local resources and led resistance against the Lombards who occupied most of Northern Italy. |
| Papal States | ... |
| Monasticism | ... |
| Benedict of Nursia | Founded his own monastery at Monte Cassino and wrote his own set of rules for his monastery called Benedictine Rule. He became a patriarch of Western monasticism. |
| Benedictine Rule | The set of rules adopted by many monasteries, written by Benedict of Nursia. Required a daily routine of: 4 hours of collective prayer, 4 hour for meditation and private reading, 6 hours for physical labor, and 10 hours for eating and sleeping. |
| Abbot | "Father" of a monastery. Monks elected to obey the father. Lived a celibate life. |
| Donation of Constantine | ... |
| Pope Leo III | Accused of misconduct and various crimes including adultery. Before he was sentenced, he fled and contracted Charlemagne for help. During the Pope's trial, Charlemagne accepted Leo's plea of innocence purging him of all charges. |
| Coronation of Charlemagne | Pope Leo III unexpectedly put a crown on Charlemagne's head at the church of St. Peter's Basilica and said "Long life and victory to Charles Augustus, the great peace loving emperor of the Romans by God." This surprise coronation set a precedent and demonstrated the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church over the secular power of the Frankish state, showing that only the pope could confer the imperial crown. |
| Lay Investiture | The practice by which secular rulers both chose and invested their nominees to church offices with the symbols of their office. |
| Pope Gregory VII | When he came into office he issued a statement of Papal authority: the pope had universal power to choose Bishops and kings, and every citizen had the right to bring accusations against the king to the pope. He wrote a letter to King Henry IV threatening to dispose him if he didn't put an end to lay investiture. |
| Investiture Controversy | The struggle between the papacy and secular rulers over the king's presentation of of the symbols of office to churchmen. |
| Henry IV | After receiving Pope Gregory's letter threatening to dispose him if he didn't put an end to lay investiture, Henry wrote back condemning the Pope. Gregory Immediately disposed Henry and told everyone to stop lending their support to the king, anyone who didn't follow these orders would be excommunicated. |
| Canossa | Henry travelled to the Castle Canossa in Italy to receive absolution. Gregory heard Henry's confession and promise to be obedient from that point forward and absolved him. However, Henry was not obedient, so he was disposed again, but then he drove Pope Gregory to Southern Italy where the pope died in exile. |
| Concordat of Worms | Arranged to settle the investiture controversy. It marked the end of the first phase of conflict between the 2 powers. |
| Scholasticism | Dominant Christian theological and philosophical system of the Middle Ages based on Aristotle and the Church Fathers. It sought to bridge the gap between faith and reason. |
| Mendicant Friars | They work and/or beg for a living and are not bound to one convent. |
| University of Paris | ... |
| Averroes | ... |
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