1.
(trope): (figure of speech that involves a change in the usual meaning or signification of words, such as metaphor, simile, and analogy)
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ad hominem argument: fallacy in which a writer's claim is answered by irrelevant attacks on his or her character
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anadiplosis: a wonderful repetition technique; the last word of the clause begins the next clause, creating a connection of ideas important to the author's purpose in some way
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analogy: an extended comparison between something unfamiliar & something more familiar for the purpose of illuminating or dramatizing the unfamiliar
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anaphora: figure of speech involving repetition, particularly of the same word at the beginning of several clauses
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antithesis: use of parallel structures to call attention to contrasts or opposites, as in Some like it hot; some like it cold.
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antonomasia: use of a title, epithet, or description in place of a name as in Your Honor for Judge
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appeal based on character: strategy in which a writer presents an authoritative or credible self-image to dispose an audience to accept a claim
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argument from ignorance: argument stating that something is true because it has never been proven false
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argument of definition: argument in which the claim specifies that something does or doesn't meet the conditions or features set forth in a definition: Pluto is not a major planet.
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argument of fact: argument in which the claim can be proved or disproved with specific evidence or testimony: The winter of 1998 was the warmest on record for the United States.
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artistic appeal: support for an argument that a writer creates based on principles of reason and shared knowledge rather than on facts & evidence
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assumption-: a belief regarded as true, upon which other claims are based
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audience*: person or persons to whom an argument is directed
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authority: quality conveyed by a writer who is knowledgeable about his or her subject and confident in that knowledge
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background*: information a writer provides to create the context of an argument
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bandwagon appeal: fallacy in which a course of action is recommended on the ground that everyone else is following it
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begging the question: a fallacy in which a claim is based on the very grounds that are in doubt or dispute: Rita can't be the bicycle thief; she's never stolen anything.
19.
causal argument: an argument that seeks to explain the effect(s) of a cause, the cause(s) of an effect, or a causal chain in which A causes B, B causes C, C causes D, and so on
20.
cause and effect: another fallacy, a.k.a. post hoc ergo propter hoc (Latin for "after this, therefore because of this"); falls under the general umbrella of a causality fallacy or false cause
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ceremonial argument: argument that deals with current values and addresses the questions of praise and blame; a.k.a. epideictic & include eulogies and graduation speeches
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claim-: statement asserting a belief or truth; require supporting evidence; key in Toulmin argument
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conditions of rebuttal: in Toulmin argument, potential objections to an argument; writers need to anticipate such conditions in shaping their arguments
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credibility: impression of integrity, honesty, and trustworthiness conveyed by a writer in an argument
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criterion: in evaluative arguments, the standard by which something is measured to determine its quality or value
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cultural assumption-: belief regarded as true or commonsensical within a particular culture, such as the belief in individual freedom in American culture
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deductive reasoning: a form of logical argumentation that uses claims or premises; the assumption by the author is that you will accept the claims as true and that you will then deduce the correct conclusion from the accepted premises at the outset: Are the claims reasonable?
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deliberative argument: argument that deals with action to be taken in the future, focusing on matters of policy; include parliamentary debates & campaign platforms
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dogmatism: fallacy in which a claim is supported on the grounds that it's the only conclusion acceptable within a given community
30.
either-or choice: fallacy in which a complicated issue is misrepresented as offering only two possible alternatives, one of which is often made to seem vastly preferable to the other
31.
emotional appeal/pathos: a strategy in which a writer tries to generate specific emotions (such as fear, envy, anger, or pity) in an audience to dispose it to accept a claim
32.
equivocation: fallacy in which a lie is given the appearance of truth, or in which the truth is misrepresented in deceptive language
33.
ethnographic observation: a form of field research involving close extended observation of a group, event, or phenomenon; careful and detailed note-taking during the observation; analysis of the notes; and interpretation of that analysis
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ethos: self-image a writer creates to define a relationship with readers; most writers try to establish one that suggests authority and credibility
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experimental evidence: evidence gathered through experimentation; often evidence that can be quantified (for example, a survey of students before and after an election might yield statistical evidence about change in their attitudes toward the candidates). This is crucial to scientific arguments
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fallacy of an argument: flaw in the structure of an argument that renders its conclusion invalid or suspect
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false analogy: fallacy in which a comparison between two objects or concepts is inaccurate or inconsequential
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false authority: fallacy in which a claim is based on the expertise of someone who lacks appropriate credentials
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false dilemma: also known as either/or fallacy; the suggestion is made in the argument that the problem or debate ONLY has two solutions
40.
faulty causality: fallacy making the unwarranted assumption that because one event follows another, the first event causes the second; a.k.a post hoc, ergo propter hoc; form the basis of many superstitions
41.
firsthand evidence: data- including surveys, observation, personal interviews, etc. - collected and personally examined by the writer
42.
fisking: term invented by Glenn Reynolds to describe a point-by-point refutation, usually online, of an argument that the writer finds inaccurate or rhetorically suspect
43.
forensic argument: argument that deals with actions that have occured in the past; a.k.a. judicial arguments; include legal cases involving judgements of guilt or innocence
44.
formal definition: definition that identifies something first by the general class to which it belongs (genus) and then by the characteristics that distinguish it from other members of that class (species): Baseball is a game (genus) played on a diamond by opposing teams of nine players who score runs by circling bases afterstriking a ball with a bat (species).
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hard evidence: support for an argument using facts, statistics, testimony, or other evidence the writer finds
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hasty generalization: fallacy in which an inference is drawn from insufficient data
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hypothesis: expectation for the findings of one's research or the conclusion to one's argument; must be tested against evidence, opposing arguments, and so on
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immediate reason: cause that leads directly to an effect, such as an automobile accident that results in an injury to the driver
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inartistic appeal: support for an argument using facts, statistics, eyewitness testimony, or other evidence the writer feels
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Inductive reasoning: form of logical argumentation that requires the use of examples; these arguments are more like science; you get example after example until you reach a conclusion
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intended reader-: actual, real-life people whom a writer consciously wants to address in a piece of writing
52.
invitational argument: a term used by Sonja Foss to describe arguments that are aimed not at vanquishing an opponent but at inviting other to collaborate in exploring mutually satisfying ways to solve problems
53.
invoked readers-: readers directly addressed or implied in a text, which may include some that the writer didn't consciously intend to reach; an argument that refers to those who have experienced a major trauma, for example, __s all readers who have undergone this experience
54.
logical appeal: stragety in which a writer uses facts, evidence, and reason to make audience members accept a claim
55.
moral equivalence: a fallacy in which no distinction is made between serious issues, problems, or failings and much less important ones
56.
necessary reason: a cause that must be present for an effect to occur; for example, infection with a particular virus is a ___ ___ for the development of AIDS.
57.
non sequitur: fallacy in which claims, reasons, or warrants fail to connect logically; one point doesn't follow from another. If you're really my friend, you'll lend me five hundred dollars.
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pathos: emotional appeal
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persuasion-: act of seeking to change someone else's point of view
60.
poisonning the well: a person or character is introduced with language that suggests that he is not at all reliable before the listener/reader knows anything about him
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precedents: actions or decisions in the past that have established a pattern or model for subsequent actions; these are particularly important in legal cases
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premise-: a statement or position regarded as true and upon which other claims are based
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propaganda: argument advancing a point of view without regard to reason, fairness, or truth
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proposal argument: argument in which a claim is made in favor of or opposing a specific course of action: Sport utility vehicles should have to meet the same fuel economy standards as passenger cars.
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purpose-: goal of an argument; include entertaining, informing, convincing, exploring, and deciding, among others
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qualifiers-: words or phrases that limit the scope of a claim: usually; in a few cases; under these circumstances
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qualitative argument: argument of evaluation that relies on nonnumerical criteria supported by reason, tradition, precedent, or logic
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quantitative argument: argument of evaluation that relies on criteria that can be measured, counted, or demonstrated objectively
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reason-: statement that expands a claim by offering evidence to support it; may be a statement of fact or another claim; in Toulmin argument, it is attached to a claim by a warrant, a statement that establishes the logical connection between claim and supporting reason
70.
rebuttal: answer that challenges or refutes a specific claim or charge; may also be offered by writers who anticipate objections to the claims or evidence they offer
71.
red herring: an argument that distracts the reader by raising issues irrelevant to the case; it is like being given too many suspects in a murder mystery
72.
rhetoric-: art of persuasion; Western ___ originated in ancient Greece as a discipline to prepare citizens for arguing cases in court
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rhetorical analysis-: an examination of how well the components of an argument work to persuade or move an audience
74.
rhetorical questions-: questions posed to raise an issue or create an effect rather than to get a response: You may well wonder, "What's in a name?"
75.
rhetorical shift: occurs when the author alters his or her diction, syntax, or both (show critical points)
76.
Rogerian argument-: approach to argumentation that's based on the principle, articulated by psychotherapist Carl ___, that audiences respond best when they don't feel threatened. ___ argument stresses trust and urges those who disagree to find common ground
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satire-: a form of humor in which a writer uses wit to expose- and possibly correct- human feelings
78.
scare tactic: fallacy presenting an issue in terms of exaggerated threats or dangers
79.
secondhand evidence: any information taken from outside sources, including library research and online sources
80.
sentimental appeal: fallacy in which an appeal is based on excessive emotion
81.
slippery slope/domino theory: fallacy exaggerating the possibility that a relatively inconsequential action or choice today will have serious adverse consequences in the future
82.
spin: a kind of political advocacy that makes any fact or event, however unfavorable, serve a political purpose
83.
stance-: writer's attitude toward the topic and audience
84.
statis-: theory in classical rhetoric, a method for coming up with appropriate arguments by determining the nature of a given situation: a question of fact; of definition; of quality; or of policy.
85.
straw man: fallacy in which an opponent's position is misrepresented as being more extreme than it actually is, so that it's easier to refute
86.
syllogism-: in formal logic, a structure of deductive logic in which correctly formed major and minor premises lead to a necessary conclusion; major- all human beings are mortal; minor- Socrates is a human being; conclusion- Socrates is mortal.
87.
testimony-: personal experience or observation used to support an argument
88.
Toulmin argument: a method of informal logic first described by Stephen __ in The Uses of Argument (1958). ____ describes the key components of an argument as the claim, reason, warrant, backing, and grounds
89.
understatement: figure of speech that makes a weaker statement than a situation seems to call for. It can lead to powerful or to humorous effects.
90.
warrant: in Toulmin argument, that statement (expressed or implied) that establishes the logical connection between a claim and its supporting reason; Claim- Don't eat that mushroom; Reason- It's poisonous.; ____- What is poisonous should not be eaten.
