Bio Chapter 4

English	Math / Symbols
Microscopy	to physically look at cells and to find things in a cell
Magnification	ratio between the size of an image produced by a microscope and its actual size
resolution	clarity - ability to observe two adjacent objects as distint from one another
contrast	ability to distinguish different structures, can be enhanced using dyes
unaided human eye	what you would use to look at a fish egg, bird egg, human height ( objects ranging from approx 0.5 cm to 10 m and larger)
light microscope	what you would use to look at mitochondria, most bacteria, nucleus, most plant and animal cells.
electron microscope	what you would used to look at lipids, proteins, ribosomes, viruses, smallest bacteria, plus everything the light microscope can look at
light microscope	this microscope uses light for illumination, resolution is 0.2 µm
electron microscope	this microscope uses electron beam, resolution 2nm
transmission electron microscopy	thin slices stained with heavy metals, some electrons are scattered while others pass through to form an image
scanning electron microscopy	sample coated with heavy metal, beam scans surface to make 3D image
prokaryotic cells	simple cell structure, lack membrane-enclosed nucleus, 2 categories - bacteria and archaea - both are small. there is internal organization but not at the level of complexity as of eukaryotic cells
bacteria	this is a type of prokaryotic cell that are abundant and most are not harmful
archaea	this is a type of prokaryotic cell that is less common and often found in extreme environments.
Bacteria	this prokaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm nucleoide and ribosomes. in this cell many structures are located outside the plasma membrane, cell wall, glycocalyx, appendages
nucleoide	region where genetic material is found
cell wall	support and protection in cell
glycocalyx	this traps water, and offers protection in a prokaryotic cell - outer gelatinous cover
appendages	pilli (attachment), flagella (locomotion)
ribosomes	involved in protein synthesis
cytoplasm	contained inside plasma membrane, site of metabolism
plasma membrane	barrier that encloses cytoplasm
pilli	allow bacteria to attach to surfaces and to each other
flagella	allow certain bacteria to swim
eukaryotic cells	much larger than other cells, this type of cell has DNA inside nucleus, exhibit compartmentalization, contains organelles. the shape, size, and organization of cells vary considerable among different species and even among different cell types of the same species
organelle	membrane-bounded compartment with its own unique structure and function
centrosome	site where microtubules grow and centrioles are found
rough endoplasmic reticulum	site of protein sorting and secretion
smooth endoplasmic reticulum	site of detoxification and lipid synthesis
mitochondrion	site of ATP synthesis
cytoskeleton	protein filaments that provide shape and aid in movement
peroxisome	site where hydrogen peroxide and other harmful molecules are broken down
golgi apparatus	site of modification, sorting, and secretion of lipids and proteins.
cytosol	site of many metabolic pathways
plasma membrane	selective movement of substances into and out of the cell, site of cell signalling
chromatin	a complex of protein and DNA
nucleolus	site for ribosome assembly
lysosome	site where macromolecules are digested
nuclear envelope	double membrane that encloses the nucleus
nucleus	area where genetic material is organized and expressed
nuclear pore	passageway for molecules into and out of the nucleus
proteome	this determines the characteristics of a cell. a single organism can produce different types of cells because there is identical DNA in different cells, but different _________
proteome	this determines the structure and function of a cell
proteome	gene regulation, amount of protein, amino acid sequence of a particular protein and protein modification can influence a cell's ______
differ	proteomes in healthy cells _____ from proteomes of cancerous cells
cytosol	this surrounds the organelles but inside the plasma membrane, cytoplasm includes everything inside plasma membrane. this is the environment surrounding organelles
cytosol	this is the central coordinating region for many metabolic activities of eukaryotic cells
catabolism	breakdown of a molecule into smaller components
anabolism	synthesis of cellular molecules and macromolecules
Translation	process of polypeptide synthesis. information within a gene is ultimately translated into the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide. tRNA and mRNA are involved
ribosome	site of protein synthesis
tRNA	this transfers amino acids
mRNA	this carries info to make polypeptide
mRNA	a ribosome moves relative to an _____ molecule allowing tRNA with specific amino acids to bind.
cytoskeleton	these proteins are critical for cell function, mutations often lead to desease. this is a network of three different types of protein filaments, microtubules, intermediate filaments, actin filaments
microtubules	(tubulin) dynamic instability, centrosome or microtubule-organizing center in animals. its tubule wall composed of the protein tubulin. its involved in cell shape, organization of cell organelles, chromosome sorting in cell division, intracellular movement of cargo, cell motility (cilia and flagella)
intermediate filaments	tend to be more stable than microtubules and actin filaments, which readily polymerize and depolymerize. this can be composed of different proteins, including desmin, keratin, lamin and others, its structure is like twisted filament. its involved in cell shape, provide cells with mechanical strength, anchorage of cell and nuclear membranes.
actin filaments	also known as microfilaments. it is two intertwined strands composed of the protein actin. its involved in cell shape, cell strength, muscle contraction, intracellular movement of cargo, cell movement, cytokinesis in animal cells
motor proteins	these proteins use ATP to promote movement. they have three domains called head, hinge and tail.
motor	this protein moves the cargo along cytoskeleton
motor	this protein can remain in one place and move filament
motor	when this protein attempts to walk it exerts a force that causes the filament to bend. (this is because this and filaments are restricted in movement)
Flagella	this is usually longer than cilia and present singly or in pairs - can propel a cell with whiplike motion
cilia	this is often shorter than flagella and tend to cover all or part of the surface of a cell
flagella and cilia	these share the same internal structure, microtubules, dynein (motor protein), and axoneme
axoneme	the linking protein thats part of the structure of flagella and cilia
flagella and cilia	their movement involves the propagation of a bend which begins at the base of the structure and proceeds toward the tip
flagella	can move in single or pairs - example of single is sperm swimming
myosin	Sheetz and Spudich showed that _______ walks along actin filaments.
endomembrane system	network of membranes enclosing the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi body, lysosomes, vacuoles, peroxisomes - also includes plasma membrane. may be directly connected to each other or pass materials via vesicles
nuclear envelope	double-membrane structure enclosing nucleus, outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. materials within nucleus are not part of the endomembrane system
nuclear pores	passageways through nuclear envelope
nucleus	primary function involves protection, organization, and expression of the genetic material. ribosome assembly happens here
chromosomes	composed of DNA and protein, chromatin
endoplasmic reticulum	network of membranes that form flattened, fluid filled tubules or cisternae
cisternae	fluid filled tubules that are flattened in endoplasmic reticulum
endoplasmic reticulum membrane	this membrane encloses a single compartment calles the ER lumen
rough endoplasmic reticulum	this is the endoplasmic reticulum thats studded with ribosomes. involved in protein synthesis and sorting
smooth endoplasmic reticulum	this is the endoplasmic reticulum that lacks ribosomes. its involved in detoxification, carbohydrate metabolism, calcium balance, synthesis and modification of lipids
golgi body	stacks of flattened, membrane-bounded compartments which are not continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum. vesicles transport materials between stacks. this has three overlapping functions; secretion, processing, and protein sorting
lysosome	these contain acid hydrolases that perform hydrolysis. various acid hydrolases break down proteins, carbs, nucleic acids, and lipids. cite of autophagy
autophagy	recycling of worn-out organelles through endocytosis
lysosome	things are sent here so it can lower their pH
vacuole	functions are extremely varied and differ among cell types and even environmental conditions
central vacuoles	these are vacuoles in plants for storage and support
contractile vacuoles	these are vacuoles in protists for expelling excess water.
phagocytic vacuoles	these are vacuoles in protists and white blood cells for degradation
peroxisomes	these are relatively small, found in all eukaryotic cells, may be in semiautonomous cells (no one knows for sure) they are a single membrane that encloses a fluid-filled lumen. they contain enzymes to catalyze many different chemical reactions. they break down molecules by removing hydrogen or adding oxygen.
H₂O₂	a peroxisome breaks down molecules, what is produced in these reactions?
catalase	peroxisomes contain this enzyme that breaks down H₂O₂ to make water and oxygen gas, avoiding the production of any dangerous free radicals
peroxisome	vesicles bud from the endoplasmic reticulum and fuse with each other to form a premature _____________. then additional proteins and lipids are imported, maturing the _________.
divide	mature peroxisomes may ___________ to produce more peroxisomes
plasma membrane	the boundary between the cell and the extracellular environment. it is selectively permeable. involved in monitoring transport into and out of cell, cell signalling and cell adhesion. if this gets messed up its game over for cell
membrane transport	plasma membrane proteins are vital to ______________________
cell signalling	to survive and adapt to changing conditions, cells must be able to sense changes in their environment and react to them. cells of multicellular organisms also need to communicate with each other, to coordinate activities. the plasma membrane has receptors for _______ ___________
adhesion	proteins in the plasma membranes of adjacent cells bind to each other and promote cell-to-cell ___________. this is critical for animal cells to properly interact in a multicellular organism
cell adhesion	proteins in the plasma membrane of adjacent cells hold the cells together
membrane transport	proteins in the plasma membrane allow the transport of substances into and out of cells
cell signalling	an extracellular signal binds to a receptor that activates a signal cascade leading to a cellular response
semiautonomous organelles	mitochondria, chloroplasts, these can grow and divide and reproduce (binary fission). they are not completely autonomous because they must import molecules from other parts of the cell for their internal components.
semiautonomous organelles	these have small circular genomes like bacteria
semiautonomous organelles	these organelles contain DNA that encodes some essential polypeptides
mitochondria	this semiautonomous organelle has an outer and inner membrane, inter membrane space and mitochondrial matrix. its primar role is to make ATP.
mitochondria	this produces ATP, is involved in the synthesis, modification, and breakdown of several types of cellular molecules. can generate heat in brown fat cells.
mitochondria	cells with heavy energy demands like muscle cells will contain more __________
mitochondria, cristae	the inner membrane of ___________ is highly invaginated (folded) to from projections called _______ these folds increase the surface area of the inner membrane, which is the site where ATP is made
inner membrane	this is the part of the mitochondria where ATP is produced
Chloroplasts	these are the semiautonomous organelles involved in photosynthesis. these are found in nearly all species of plant and algae. they have and outer and inner membrane with an inter-membrane space. it also has a third membrane. they contain chlorophyl
photosynthesis	capture light energy to synthesize organic molecules such as glucose
thylakoid membrane	this is the third membrane of a chloroplast. it forms flattened tubules that stack to form a granum
stroma	this is the compartment of the chloroplast that is inside the inner membrane but outside thylakoid membrane.
plastids	chloroplasts are a specialized version of plant organelles that are generally known as ______. they are derived from unspecialized proplastids.