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Life History Lifelong pattern of growth, development, and reproduction Life Cycle Stages Growth Development Reproduction Annual life cycle Lasts single year. One circle of growth, flower, death, seed, completed in a single year Biennial life cycle Lasts two years. One circle of Growth, dormancy, growth, flower, death, seed Perennial Lasts more than a few years. Two overlapping circles, one is biennial and one is annual Iteroparous Reproduce many times over lifespan (perennial plants, most animals) Semelparous Single reproductive effort followed by death Photoperiod and Reproduction Less light means less reproduction, steady light Photoperiod and reproduction Allows energy for seed production, equatorial is year long whereas temperate is seasonal. Both are perineal, dormancy changes. r-selected species reproduce early in life and often, high capacity for reproductive growth K selected species reproduce later in life, produce fewer offspring, devote significant time and energy to nurturing their offspring Unitary organism an organism whose growth to adult forms (usually) follows a determinate pathway. (mammals, sea urchins) Modular organism organism that grows by repeated iteration of parts; some parts may seperate and become physically and physiologically independent (plants, sponges) Population a group of organisms of the same species populating a given area Metapopulation a population of populations, interconnected by immigration, emigration, and gene flow. Random distribution No pattern or interaction in population spacing Regular distribution Even spacing is caused by repulsive interactions Clumped distributions Irregular grouping is caused most often by resource avalability Two ways to sample plant density Quadrants and Transects Mark and Recapture formula total pop= (# marked x total # captured)/ # recaptured with marks Cohort life tables Show group born at same time Time Specific Life Tables Show group at certain period of time, allowing for extrapolation of survivorship and cohorts Two assumptions of time specific life table Constant birth and death rates Ability to age individuals Type I survivorship curve Downward Log Curve Type II survivorship curve Linear curve Type III survivorship curve Upward Log Curve Migration Impact Factors Resource Availability, Density distribution, and avoiding inbreeding Carrying Capacity largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support Exponential Growth Ever increasing with limitless resources Logistic growth Fast then flattens at K as resources become limited Intraspecific competition Competition between members of one population Interspecific competition Competition between more than two populations N population size t time K carrying capacity of environment r Intrinsic rate of increase of population Competition coefficient Effect of one species on another, if one is higher then it will win because it can accrue resources easier Lotka-Volterra Model of Interspecific Competition Effect of interspecific competition on population growth of each species, mathematical formula given and know how to draw slate-space graphs Line shows point when populations will remain stable Average line points to direction of carrying capacity or maximum population Parallel: one population will win with the other going extinct Intersecting: Can go either way or coexist at intersection Competitive Exclusion Principle Outcompete and win, adapt or die Fundamental Niche The full potential range of the physical, chemical, and biological factors a species can use if there is no competition from other species. Realized Niche the part of its fundamental niche that a species actually occupies Ways to Partition Resources Spatial Temporal Morphological True Predator Kills and consumes another organism Grazer Eats part of an organism Parasites Live on or off another organism without killing them Parasitoid Lives on or off another organism and kills indirectly with laying of eggs Lotka-Volterra Model of Predation Oscillating circle of catching up to prey population, sinusoidal curve plot of predators rising as prey rising and falling as prey fall Predator Regulation of Prey Techniques Functional or Numerical response Functional Response Eat more prey Numerical Response Have more offspring Type 1 Functional Response Most time hunting Small time eating When prey population is low Linear Graph Type II Functional Response Less time hunting More time eating Abundant prey Graph levels off Type III Functional Response Combination of I and II S curve on graph Effected by hiding places and prey density relationship Effected by switching between prey Types of Numerical Responses Reproduction Migration Optimal Foraging Theory The basis for analyzing behavior as a compromise of feeding costs versus feeding benefits. Natural selection favors efficiency. Crypsis Camouflage to environment Mimicry Look alike to another animal Aposematism Bright colors (red, yellow, orange) to warn other animals Mullerian mimicry Noxious organisms mimic each other Batesian mimicry Harmless organism mimics noxious one Animal Behavioral Defense Avoidance and Grooming Tropical plants vs. temperate plants are more poisonous and defensive due to constant predation Mutualism ++ Commensalism +0 Parasitism +- Infection Having some load of a parasite Disease Outcome of parasite load Microparasites Small, fast cycles and infections Macroparasites larger, longer cycles and infections Two Parasitic Plants Haustoria and Mistletoe Holoparasite (Dodder) Haustoria Roots puncture tissues Holoparasites Get water and nutrients from host (dodder)) Direct transmission sneeze Vector transmission mosquito Vector born diseases Lymes Malaria Bubonic Plague Definitive host The host in which the sexual reproduction of a parasite takes place Intermediate host Any host but the definitive host Meningeal worms cycle in deer Feces->eggs->slugs->grass->deer stomach->deer brain->cycle repeats Behavioral response to parasitism Grooming Avoidance Primary response to parasitism Inflammation and White Blood Cells Scab formation Cyst formation Secondary response to parasite Antibody production Plant Secondary Response to parasite Galls Obligate mutualism a mutualistic relationship that must occur for one or both species involved in the relationship to survive. (coral polyps and zooanthellae) Facultative mutualism a mutualistic relationship between two species that is not required for the survival of the two species (clownfish and sea anemone) Symbiotic mutualism Both benefit (coral polyps and zooanthellae) Non symbiotic mutualism Beneficial but not necessary (clownfish and sea anemone) Mutualism Examples Clownfish and anemone Mycoorhizal fungi and plants Rhizobium bacteria and legumes Defensive mutualism examples Endophyte fungus and fescue Cleaning mutualizes (wrass and eel mouth/oxpecker and antelope) Plant Benefits from mutualism Pollination Seed dispersal Parasite Examples of Regulating Dense Population • Chryphnectria fungus 1900s→Killed chesnut trees in eastern pacific forests • Adelgids infection of Fir and Hemlock • Distemper in raccoons and foxes Examples of Resource Acquisition Mutualism Clownfish and Anemone Mychorrhizae fungus and plant roots (endo and extomychorrihizae) Rhizobium bacteria and legume roots Defensive Mutualism Example Fescue and endophyte fungus Cleaning: blue head rass and eel, oxpecker and antelope Hanta/Rat Paper o As weather gets warmer, more plants and more rats and rodent vectors o We should study reservoirs to see where disease comes from Lymes and hosts o More biodiversity means more types of vectors which may have resistance and stop spread of disease o Biodiversity means less lymes Bats and Ebola o Bat populations predict outbreaks Malaria, Mosquitoes, and Elevation o People in fields get malaria bc no nets o Malaria is high because of the type of work people do • Low elevation means malaria, high elevation is less Zero Isocline for Prey Npred= r/c Zero Isocline for Predator Nprey= d/bc Efficiency Formula P2=E2/h2 P1=E1/(s1-h1)