Chapter 8
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Created by:
michaelbuice on October 31, 2011
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Thinking, Intelligence, and Language
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88 terms
Terms | Definitions |
|---|---|
 cognition | The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing. |
| artificial intelligence (AI) | A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people. |
| cognitive psychology | Label for approaches that sought to explain observable behavior by investigating mental processes and structures that we cannot directly observe. |
| thinking | The mental processes of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively. |
| concept | A mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics. |
| prototype model | A model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept, they compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category and look for a "family resemblance" with that item's properties. |
| problem solving | The mental processes of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available. |
| find and frame problems | The first step in problem solving. |
| develop good problem-solving strategies | The second step in problem solving. |
| subgoals | Intermediate goals or intermediate problems that put us in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution. |
| algorithms | Strategies - including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions - that guarantee a solution to a problem. |
| heuristics | Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer. |
| evaluate solutions | The third step in problem solving. |
| rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time | The fourth step in problem solving. |
| fixation | Using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective. |
| functional fixedness | Failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing's usual functions. |
| reasoning | The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions. |
| inductive reasoning | Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations. |
| deductive reasoning | Reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance. |
| decision making | The mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them. |
| confirmation bias | The tendency to search for and use information that supports our ideas rather than refutes them. |
| hindsight bias | The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that we accurately predicted an outcome. |
| availability heuristic | A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events. |
| base rate fallacy | The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information. |
| representativeness heuristic | The tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one's stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information. |
| critical thinking | Thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence. |
| mindfulness | The state of being alert and mentally present for one's everyday activities. |
| mindless behavior | Automatic activities we perform without thought. |
| open-mindedness | The state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things. |
| creativity | The ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems. |
| divergent thinking | Thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem. |
| convergent thinking | Thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem. |
| intelligence | All-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience. |
| validity | The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. |
| criterion validity | When the scores on a measure relate to important outcomes. |
| reliability | The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance. |
| standardization | The development of uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, and the creation of norms (performance standards) for the test. |
| mental age (MA) | An individual's level of mental development relative to that of others. |
| intelligence quotient (IQ) | An individual's mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100. |
| normal distribution | A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range. |
| culture-fair tests | Intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased. |
| heritability | The proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group's members. |
| Flynn effect | One effect of education on intelligence is evident in rapidly increasing IQ test scores around the world. |
| gifted | Possessing high intelligence (an IQ of 130 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area. |
| intellectual disability | A condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional intelligence test, and has difficulty adapting to everyday life. |
| organic intellectual disability | Caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage. |
| cultural-familial intellectual disability | A mental deficit with no evidence of organic brain damage. Individuals with this type of disability have an IQ between 55 and 70. |
| conceptual skills | For example, literacy and understanding of numbers, money, and time. |
| social skills | For example, interpersonal skills, responsibility, self-esteem, and ability to follow rules and obey. |
| practical skills | For example, activities of daily living such as personal care, occupational skills, health care, travel/transportation, and use of the telephone. |
| emotional intelligence | The ability to perceive emotions in ourselves and others accurately. |
| triarchic theory of intelligence | Sternberg's theory that intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative, and practical. |
| analytical intelligence | The ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast. |
| creative intelligence | The ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine. |
| practical intelligence | The ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice. |
| verbal intelligence | The ability to think in words and use language to express meaning. Occupations: author, journalist, speaker. |
| mathematical intelligence | The ability to carry out mathematical operations. Occupations: scientist, engineer, accountant. |
| spatial intelligence | The ability to think three-dimensionally. Occupations: architect, artist, sailor. |
| bodily-kinesthetic intelligence | The ability to manipulate objects and to be physically adept. Occupations: surgeon, craftsperson, dancer, athlete. |
| musical intelligence | The ability to be sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone. Occupations: composer, musician. |
| interpersonal intelligence | The ability to understand and interact effectively with others. Occupations: teacher, mental health professional. |
| intrapersonal intelligence | The ability to understand oneself. Occupations: theologian, psychologist. |
| naturalist intelligence | The ability to observe patterns in nature and understand natural and human-made systems. Occupations: farmer, botanist, ecologist, landscaper. |
| existentialist intelligence | The ability to grapple with the big questions of human existence, such as the meaning of life and death, with special sensitivity to issues of spirituality. Occupation: philosopher. |
| language | A form of communication - whether spoken, written, or signed - that is based on a system of symbols. |
| infinite generativity | The ability of language to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences. |
| phonology | A language's sound system. |
| morphology | A language's rules for word formation. |
| syntax | A language's rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences. |
| semantics | The meaning of words and sentences in a particular language. |
| pragmatics | The useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is said. |
| linguistic relativity hypothesis | Whorf's argument that language determines the way we think. |
| 0-6 months | Cooing, discrimination of vowels, babbling present by 6 months. |
| 6-12 months | Babbling expands to include sounds of spoken language, gestures used to communicate about objects, first words spoken 10-13 months. |
| 12-18 months | Understands 50+ words on average. |
| 18-24 months | Vocabulary increases to an average of 200 words, two-word combinations. |
| 2 years | Vocabulary rapidly increases, correct use of plurals, use of past tense, use of some prepositions. |
| 3-4 years | Mean length of utterances increases to 3-4 morphemes in a sentence, use of "yes" and "no" questions, wh- questions, use of negatives and imperatives, increased awareness of pragmatics. |
| 5-6 years | Vocabulary reaches an average of about 10,000 words, coordination of simple sentences. |
| 6-8 years | Vocabulary continues to increase rapidly, more skilled use of syntactical rules, conversational skills improve. |
| 9-11 years | Word definitions include synonyms, conversational strategies continue to improve. |
| 11-14 years | Vocabulary increases with addition of more abstract words, understanding of complex grammar forms, increased understanding of function a word plays in a sentence, understands metaphor and satire. |
| 15-20 years | Understands adult literary works. |
| cognitive appraisal | Individuals' interpretation of the events in their lives as harmful, threatening, or challenging and their determination of whether they have the resources to cope effectively with the events. |
| coping | Managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to solve life's problems, and seeking to master or reduce stress. |
| primary appraisal | Individuals interpret whether an event involves harm or loss that has already occurred, a threat of some future danger, or a challenge to be overcome. |
| secondary appraisal | Individuals evaluate their resources and determine how effectively they can be used to cope with the event. |
| cognitive reappraisal | Regulating one's feelings about an experience by reinterpreting that experience or thinking about it in a different way or from a different angle. |
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