| Term | Definition |
|---|
| National Workshops | were established in 1848 to resolve the problem of unemployment. |
| June Days | was the result of the Assembly shutting down the national workshops. The French troops led by General Louis Cavaignac suppressed the radicals who wanted to maintain the workshops. |
| Second French Republic | provided for a president and a single chamber assembly which would be elected on the basis of universal manhood suffrage. (The president would serve for a four-year term in office). |
| Frederick William IV | Prussian King who announced the following on March 17, 1848: 1. A Prussian Assembly would be convened in April, 2. A constitution would be developed, 3. Internal reforms would be instituted, and 4. Prussia would assist in the developement of a constitutional revitalization of the German Confederation. |
| The Frankfurt Assembly | a Pan-German group interested in the formulation of an integrated union of German states, convened in May 1848. |
| Louis Kossuth | succeded Prince Metternich afterhe resigned as Foreign Minister. |
| Bohemian Diet | was a Chech nationalist group which demanded for universal manhood suffrage, guarantees of basic political and religious rights, and the parity of the Chech and German languages in education and government. |
| Pan-Slavic Congress | hoped to establish an autonomous government for Czechs, Slovaks, and other Slavs withing the Austrian Empire. |
| The April Decree | (issued by the Hapsburg governemnt) pleged to eliminate the feudal services and duties which were still imposed on the peasants. |
| Risorgimento | was a symbol of Italian nationalism and the re-emergence of Italian pride. |
| Count de St. Simon | was a French utopian socialist thinker. |
| Alexander II | (r. 1855-1881) Emperor of Russia; advocated moderate reforms for Russia; emancipated the serfs; he was assassinated. |
| "Blood and iron" | Refers to Prussian tactics brought about by Otto von Bismark; his unification of Germany was through a policy of "blood and iron". |
| Count Camillo Cavour | Endorsed the economic doctrines of the middle class. Worked for a secret alliance with Napoleon III against Austria. Worked to unite Italy. |
| Carbonari | A secret society; designated to overthrow Bonapartist rulers; they were liberal patriots. |
| Ems Dispatch | A message from William I of Prussia to Napoleon III which brought France into the Franco Prussian war. |
| Giuseppe Garibaldi | (1807-82) An Italian radical who emerged as a powerful independent force in Italian politics. He planned to liberate the Two Kingdoms of Sicily. |
| Magyars | are an ethnic group primarily associated with Hungary. |
| Napoleon III | Original Napoleon's nephew; consolidated conservative government and the ideals of nationalism. |
| Russification | Policy imposing Russian customs and traditions on other people. |
| Zollverein | Economic custom union of German states, founded in 1818 by Prussia. Eliminated internal tariffs. |
| The Crimean War | (1853-1856) This war was rooted in the long-standing desire of Russians to extend its influence over the Ottoman Empire. Two disputes led to the conflict. First, as in Chap. 18, the Russians had since the time of Catherine the Great given the protective oversight of Orthodox Christians in the Empire, and France had similar oversight of Roman Catholics. In 1851, yielding to French pressure, the Ottoman sultan had assigned care of certain holy places in Palestine to Roman Catholics. This angered the Russians. Second, Russia wanted to extend its control over the Ottoman provinces of Moldavia and Walachia (now in Romania). In the summer of 1853, the Russians used their right to protect Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire as the pretext to occupy the two provinces. Shortly thereafter, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia. |
| Czar (Tsar) Nicholas I, Russia | declared war on Russia in alliance with the Ottomans, On March 28th, 1854 in France and Britain. Much to the disappointment of Tsar Nicholas I, Austria and Prussia remained neutral. The Austrians had their own ambitions in the Balkans, and, for the moment, Prussia followed Austrians leadership. In Sept. 1855, the Russian fortress of Sevastopol finally fell to the French and British. |
| Provisions of the Treaty of Paris, 1856 | This treaty required Russia to surrender territory near the mouth of the Danube River, to recognize the neutrality of the Black Sea, and to renounce its claims of protection over orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire. Even before the conference, Austria had forced Russia to withdraw from Moldavia and Walachia. The image of an invincible Russia that had prevailed across Europe since the close of the Napoleonic wars was shattered. |
| Dissolution of the Concert of Europe | these events reshaped Western Europe, the Ottoman Empire over whose fate the Crimean War had been fought undertook a series of reforms. There were more powers willing to fight to overthrow the existing order than there were to take up arms to defend it. For 25 years after the Crimean War, European affairs were unstable, producing a period of adventurism in foreign policy. |
| Florence Nightengale | organized nursing care for the wounded in Great Britain. |
| Giuseppe Mazzini | (1805-1872) He became the most important nationalist leader in Europe and brought new fervor to the cause. He once declared, "Nationality is the role assigned by God to a people in the work of humanity. It is its mission, its task on earth, to the end that Gods thought may be realized in the world". In 1831, he founded the young Italy Society to drive Austria from the peninsula and establish an Italian republic. During the 1830's and 1840's, Mazzini and his fellow republican Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) led insurrections. Both were deeply involved in the ill-fated Roman Republic of 1849. Both were deeply involved in the ill-fated Roman Republic of 1849. Throughout the 1850's they continued to conduct what amounted to guerilla warfare. Because both men spent much time in exile, they became well known across the Continent and in the United States. |
| Young Italy Society | For a time, these people had looked to the papacy to sponsor unification. That solution became impossible after the experience of Pius IX with the Roman Republic in 1849. Consequently, at midcentury, "Italy" remained a geographical expression rather than a political entity. |
| Count Camillo Cavour of Piedmont | (1810-1861) was a nationalist of a new breed who had no respect for Mazzini's ideals. A strong monarchist, he rejected republicanism. A cunning statesman, Cavour had begun political life as a strong conservative, but had gradually moved toward a moderately liberal position. He had made a fortune by investing in railroads, reforming agriculture on his own estates, and editing a newspaper. He was deeply imbued in Enlightenment, classical economics, and utilitarianism. He believed Italy could only be united with the aid of France. In July 11, 1859 Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and Romagna voted to unite with Piedmont. These events reshaped Western Europe; the Ottoman Empire over whose fate the Crimean War had been fought undertook a series of reforms. Piedmont and Napoleon III were very good friends. Italian peninsula was transformed into a nation-state under a constitutional monarchy. The process was carried out by a romantic republic nationalist the Count, the moderately liberal prime minister of Piedmont. |
| King Charles Albert of Piedmont | after having promulgated a conservative constitution, twice unsuccessfully fought Austria. Following the second defeat, he abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanual II (1849-1878). In 1852, the new monarch chose Count Camillo Cavour as his prime minister. |
| Victor Emmanual II | On March 1861, he was proclaimed king of Italy. Three months later Cavour died. The new state more than ever needed his skills. In the south, armed resistance against the imposition of Piedmontese-style administration continued until 1866. Venetia was gained in the Austro-Prussia war. Then Rome was annexed and made the capital. The papacy confined itself to the Vatican and remained hostile to the Italian state until the Lateran Accord of 1929. By 1870 only Trent and the city of Trieste remained outside of Italy. The desire to liberate Italia irredenta, or "unredeemed Italy", was one reason for the Italian support of the Allies against Austria and Germany during World War I. |
| Nationalist Society | was a group of liberal nationalists who had not recovered from the humiliating experiences of 1848 and 1849. See Count Camillo Cavour. Nationalist wanted to unite the small, absolutist principalities of the Italian peninsula into a single state. During the first half of the century, however, opinion differed about how to achieve Italian unification. Republican nationalism frightened moderate Italians, who wanted to rid themselves of Austrian domination, but wanted to rid themselves of Austrians domination but not establish a Republican nationalism frightened moderate Italians, who wanted to rid themselves of Austrian domination, but wanted to rid themselves of Austrians domination but not establish a republic. |
| Orsini | In January 1858 attempted to assassinate Napoleon III. The incident made the French emperor, who had once belonged to a nationalist group, newly concerned about the Italian issue. |
| The secret plot at Plombieres | These two men plotted to provoke a war in Italy on July 1858, Cavour and Napoleon III met at Plombieres in southern France. Riding alone in a carriage, with the emperor at the reins, the two men plotted to provoke a war in Italy that would permit them to defeat Austria. A formal treaty in December 1858 confirmed the agreement. France was to receive French-speaking Nice and Savoy from Piedmont for its aid. In June 1858 revolutions broke out in Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna provinces of the Papal States. |
| Results of the Peace of Villafranca, 1859 | When the Austrians went into retreat and the new revolutionary regimes calling for union with Piedmont, Napoleon III feared too extensive a Piedmontese victory. On July 11, he independently concluded a peace with Austria at Villafrance. |
| Transformismo | This is when Political opponents were transformed into government supporters through bribery, favors, or a seat in the cabinet. |
| Latin Accord of 1929 | By the this agreement the Italian government recognized and confirmed the pope's power to grant titles, and the titles granted by the Pope were considered equivalent to Italian titles, contrary to which it had never been abolished. |
| Italia irredenta | (unredeemed Italy) was one reason for the Italian support of the Allies against Austria and Germany during WWI. |
| William I | turned for help to the person who more that any other single individual, shaped the next thirty years of European history, Otto Van Bismarck. |
| Otto Van Bismarck | (1815-1898) He came from Junker (noble landlord) stock. He attended a university and displayed an interest in German unification. During the 1840's he was elected to the provincial diet, where he was so reactionary as to disturb even the king. He served as Prussian minister to the Frankfort diet of the German Confederation. Later he became Prussian ambassador to Russia and was ambassador to France when William I appointed him to prime minister. He was a pragmatist. He declared "Germany is not looking to Prussia's liberalism but to her power... The great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and majority decisions-that was the mistake of 1848-1849-but by iron and blood." (Yet over the next 19 years sought to preserve peace.) |
| Kleindeutsch | a small German solution to unification. Austria was to be excluded from united German state. This goal required complex diplomacy. The Schleswig-Holstein problem gave Bismarck the handle for his policy. Together Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark in 1864. |
| Convention of Gastein | This was when Bismarck maneuvered Austria into war with Prussia. The two powers negotiated the Convention of Gastein, which put Austria in charge of Holstein and Prussia in charge of Schleswig. When Bismarck moved to mend other diplomatic fences. He had gained Russian sympathy by supporting the 1863 suppression of a Polish revolt, and he persuaded Napoleon III to promised neutrality in an Austro-Prussian conflict. In April 1866, Bismarck concluded a treaty with Italy promising that Italy would get Venetia if it attacked Austria in support of Prussia when war broke out. Now Bismarck had to provoke his war. |
| Austro-Prussian War and Seven Years' War | When Bismarck ordered the Prussian forces to be as obnoxious as possible to the Austrian and Austria appealed to the German Confederation to intervene in the dispute between the two (Austria and Prussia). June 1, 1866. But Bismarck claimed that this would violate the Convention of Gastein. Then the Seven Weeks Wars which resulted in the summer of 1866, ed to the decisive defeat of Austria at Koniggratz in Bohemia. |
| The Treaty of Prague | This ended the conflict between Prussia and Austria on August 23, it was lenient toward Austria, which only lost Venetia, ceded to Napoleon III, who in turn ceded it to Italy. Austria refused to give Venetia directly to Italy because the Austrians had crushed the Italians during the war. The Habsburgs were permanently excluded from German affairs. Prussia had thus established itself as the only major power among the German states. |
| The Northern German Confederation | In 1867, Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and the city of Frankfurt, which had all supported Austria during the war, were annexed by Prussia, and their rulers were deposed. Under Prussian leadership, all Germany north of the Main River now formed a federation. |
| Hohenzollern Spain Controversy | When Bismarck revised a telegram and made it appear that William I had insulted the French ambassador. The goal was to goad France into declaring war. It worked and the French declared war on July 19 on Napoleon III. The southern German states joined Prussia against France, whose defeat was not long in coming. On Sept 1, at the battle of Sedan, the Germans not only beat the French army but also captured Napoleon III. By late Sept, Paris was besieged; it finally capitulated on Jan 28, 1871. |
| The Battle of Sedan | When the Second Empire, but not the war, came to an inglorious end with this battle in Sept., 1870. The emperor was captured and then allowed to go the England where he died in 1873. Shortly afterward new of Sedan reached Paris, a republic was proclaimed and a government of national defense established. Paris itself was soon under siege and the government moved to Bordeaux. Paris finally surrendered in January 1871, but France had been ready to sue for peace long before. |
| Alsace and Lorraine | (The Paris Commune)-When the division between the provinces and Paris became sharper after fighting with Germany stopped. Adolph Thiers (1797-1877) was given executive power and negotiated a settlement with Prussia (The Treaty of Frankfort) whereby parts of France remained occupied by Prussian troops until large indemnity had been paid. France also lost Alsace and part of Lorraine. The treaty was officially ratified on May 23 1871. |
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